Shadow orders: clandestine non-state power in the international system

Bastrup-Birk, J.T.N. (2026)

Doctoral Thesis

The research seeks to establish whether there are observable and consistent patterns in the behaviours and characteristics of different clandestine non-state actors – specifically, terrorist, insurgent and criminal organisations – with respect to challenging the authority of the sovereign state and projecting political power. In order to do so, it introduces a bespoke analytical framework that is applied to the
granular comparative analysis of three groups: the ‘Ndrangheta branch of the Italian mafia, al Qaeda ‘core’ and the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC).

The dissertation’s central argument is that clandestine non-state actors need to be understood as independent, quasi-sovereign agents of political change capable of articulating complex policy choices, establishing micro spheres of influence and adopting the range of levers of power available to states, albeit typically at a smaller scale. It also argues that these actors are adept at forging external relations and strategic partnerships – in effect ‘foreign’ policies – and that technology has increased their ability to connect, trade and cooperate as effective cross-jurisdictional networks.

• Clandestine non-state actors
• Non-state actors
• Terrorism
• Insugency
• Organized crime
• International security

• All authors: Bastrup-Birk, J.T.N.
• Supervisor: Wijk, R. de; Dechesne, M.
• Committee: Hosli, M.O.; Leun, J.P. van der; Willigen, N.J.G. van; Sweijs, T.; Mitchell, J.
• Qualification: Doctor (dr.)
• Awarding Institution: Institute of Security and Global Affairs (ISGA), Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs, Leiden University
• Date: 2026-01-20