This article argues that to better understand involvement in terrorism, research needs to focus on why most extremists will never actually commit such violence. It starts from the premise that... Show moreThis article argues that to better understand involvement in terrorism, research needs to focus on why most extremists will never actually commit such violence. It starts from the premise that involvement in terrorist violence is an unlikely outcome of radicalization processes. The dramatic and violent nature of terrorist attacks can obscure the fact that most individuals who adopt extremist views will refrain from acting in support of their convictions altogether, or do so in essentially non-violent ways such as through fundraising or the dissemination of propaganda. The norm of non-involvement in terrorist violence among people radicalized to extremism, offers considerable opportunities for new research directions. This article begins by expanding on why non-involvement in terrorist violence deserves more attention from researchers. It then discusses insights within and beyond the field of terrorism studies that can help explain the differences between violent and non-violent radicalization outcomes. The discussion then turns to some methodological considerations relevant to obtaining a better understanding of non-involvement in terrorist violence among radicalized individuals. Show less
Daymon, C.; Roy van Zuijdewijn, J.H. de; Malet, D. 2020
The literature on foreign fighters devotes considerable attention to the questions of why individuals join armed groups outside of their nation-states and their propensity for engaging in political... Show moreThe literature on foreign fighters devotes considerable attention to the questions of why individuals join armed groups outside of their nation-states and their propensity for engaging in political violence after they return to their home countries. But what happens to those who do not return but go on to join new groups or even new wars?This paper examines career foreign fighters who have traversed from one insurgency to another. We present an original dataset of over 50 individuals who served as foreign fighters in multiple insurgencies. More than half of those who could be identified as having served with more than one armed group achieved leadership positions, which is historically atypical for foreign fighters. Some become top leadership while a significant percentage also facilitate terror attacks.The Syrian conflict has produced a policy debate about whether it is more dangerous to allow foreign fighters to return or to leave them unaccounted. This study provides the first evidence that foreign fighters who survive their first tours accumulate resources, develop skills, and transfer their abilities to new violent actors. Our findings indicate that career foreign fighters pose a greater and broader security threat than returning, one-off foreign fighters. Show less
Tize, C.; Berckmoes, L.H.; Jong, J.T.V.M. de; Reis, R. 2020
This paper examines responses to the 2015 terror attack on Charlie Hebdo, a French satirical magazine, amongst students in a secondary school in Berlin-Neukölln, Germany. The Charlie Hebdo attack... Show moreThis paper examines responses to the 2015 terror attack on Charlie Hebdo, a French satirical magazine, amongst students in a secondary school in Berlin-Neukölln, Germany. The Charlie Hebdo attack occurred in the final weeks of a 19-month ethnographic study in the community. By analyzing the responses in the school to this critical event, we identify what is at stake for Muslim students. Students presented many explanations for why the attack happened, and opinions on whether the attackers’ actions were justified. Staff were alarmed about students’ viewpoints that they considered “extreme”. These dynamics resulted in conflicts and misunderstandings amongst students, and between students and staff. Yet, we show that, rather than the violence itself, or questions about its legitimacy, it was everyday processes in students’ lives – e.g., bullying, peer pressure and discrimination, and feelings of being misrepresented and misunderstood – that were central to students’ reactions to the event. We suggest that to understand students’ reactions, both the immediate and the broader socio-political contexts must be considered, particularly rising xenophobia and processes of polarization in Germany and Europe at large. We thus conclude that to understand young people’s reactions to terrorist acts, we need to look beyond initial statements and explore ethnographically how wider contexts shape the actions, reactions, and future orientations of young Muslims in Europe. Show less
Tize, C.; Berckmoes, L.; Jong, J. de; Reis, R. 2020
This paper examines responses to the 2015 terror attack on Charlie Hebdo, a French satirical magazine, amongst students in a secondary school in Berlin-Neukolln, Germany. The Charlie Hebdo attack... Show moreThis paper examines responses to the 2015 terror attack on Charlie Hebdo, a French satirical magazine, amongst students in a secondary school in Berlin-Neukolln, Germany. The Charlie Hebdo attack occurred in the final weeks of a 19-month ethnographic study in the community. By analyzing the responses in the school to this critical event, we identify what is at stake for Muslim students. Students presented many explanations for why the attack happened, and opinions on whether the attackers' actions were justified. Staff were alarmed about students' viewpoints that they considered "extreme". These dynamics resulted in conflicts and misunderstandings amongst students, and between students and staff. Yet, we show that, rather than the violence itself, or questions about its legitimacy, it was everyday processes in students' lives - e.g., bullying, peer pressure and discrimination, and feelings of being misrepresented and misunderstood - that were central to students' reactions to the event. We suggest that to understand students' reactions, both the immediate and the broader socio-political contexts must be considered, particularly rising xenophobia and processes of polarization in Germany and Europe at large. We thus conclude that to understand young people's reactions to terrorist acts, we need to look beyond initial statements and explore ethnographically how wider contexts shape the actions, reactions, and future orientations of young Muslims in Europe. Show less
As terrorism scholars, we are intrigued by those who engage in violence. We study their motivations, tactics, ideology, organisational structures, and pathways to (de-)mobilisation, hoping to... Show moreAs terrorism scholars, we are intrigued by those who engage in violence. We study their motivations, tactics, ideology, organisational structures, and pathways to (de-)mobilisation, hoping to better understand terrorism and how we can counter it. Far less attention is paid to what happens after an attack has taken place. Terrorist attacks are means to an end; the responses to terrorism determine the impact attacks might have on societies. One way to better understand the impact of terrorism is by studying how societies deal with memories of terrorist attacks. This Perspective looks into the case of Norway following the attacks by Anders Behring Breivik on July 22, 2011. What can we learn about the societal responses to terrorism from how Norway commemorates the attacks and deals with the locations where these attacks have taken place? This perspective discusses the memorialisation process in Norway and then zooms in on a visit of the author to the island of Utøya in June 2019 in order to provide a more close-up look of how the members of the Workers’ Youth League (AUF) have found their own ways to deal with the attacks.Show less
Terrorism continues to be one of the 21st century’s leading security challenges. The 2001 attacks on the United States, the “war on terrorism” that was launched in their wake, and the rise of... Show moreTerrorism continues to be one of the 21st century’s leading security challenges. The 2001 attacks on the United States, the “war on terrorism” that was launched in their wake, and the rise of deadly terrorist groups such as the so-called “Islamic State,” have ensured that this form of political violence has demanded ongoing attention. Not just from the politicians, policymakers, and practitioners tasked with addressing the threat, but also from journalists think tanks and academics looking to understand the issues at stake. Yet for all the attention that terrorism has garnered, those looking to conduct research on this topic face several well-entrenched conceptual, theoretical, and methodological hurdles. Based on my own experience, this case study provides guidance on navigating these obstacles and provides pointers for carrying out qualitative research on terrorism, specifically with regard to acquiring primary sources. Show less
Bakker, E.; Sciarone, J.; Roy van Zuijdewijn, J. de 2019
In dit vierde rapport in de reeks worden ontwikkelingen besproken ten aanzien van het beleid met betrekking tot personen die terugkeren uit jihadistische strijdgebieden, zogeheten ‘terugkeerders’,... Show moreIn dit vierde rapport in de reeks worden ontwikkelingen besproken ten aanzien van het beleid met betrekking tot personen die terugkeren uit jihadistische strijdgebieden, zogeheten ‘terugkeerders’, voor de periode januari 2017 tot medio december 2018. Bijzondere aandacht wordt geschonken aan de rol van overheden van de zeven landen bij de repatriëring van uitreizigers en de manier waarop zij omgaan met de uitreizigers op het moment van terugkeer. Hierbij wordt specifiek gekeken naar het beleid ten aanzien van vrouwen en kinderen. Show less
This article presents an in-depth evaluation of a specialized reintegration initiative within the Dutch Probation Service focused on individuals convicted or suspected of involvement in terrorism.... Show moreThis article presents an in-depth evaluation of a specialized reintegration initiative within the Dutch Probation Service focused on individuals convicted or suspected of involvement in terrorism. Using 72 interviews with program staff as well as several of their clients, the authors assess the initiative’s program theory, its day-to-day implementation and provide a qualified assessment of its overall effectiveness in the 2016 to 2018 period. The results suggest that the initiative is based on a sound understanding of how and why individuals may deradicalize or disengage from terrorism behaviorally, but that it continues to face serious challenges in terms of accurately defining success and systematically gathering objective indicators of its attainment. As terrorism remains a key challenge for societies across the globe, the relevance of these findings extends beyond the Netherlands to all academics, policymakers and practitioners working to design, implement and assess terrorist reintegration programs. Show less
Social media offer unprecedented opportunities to terrorist groups to spread their message and target specific audiences for indoctrination and recruitment. In 2013 and 2014, social media, in... Show moreSocial media offer unprecedented opportunities to terrorist groups to spread their message and target specific audiences for indoctrination and recruitment. In 2013 and 2014, social media, in particular Twitter, overtook Internet forums as preferred space for jihadist propaganda. This article looks into Arabic statements by Jabhat al-Nusra, Islamic State and jihadist forum administrators and online activists to argue that, beside the easier use of social media and disruption and infiltration of the forums, the conflict between the jihadist groups accelerated the migration to social media and the building of a presence on Twitter that provided relative resilience to suspensions. Show less
In June 2018 Mullah Fazlullah, the leader of the Taliban in Pakistan, was killed in a drone strike. This attack can be seen as part of a decapitation strategy, which is frequently used by... Show moreIn June 2018 Mullah Fazlullah, the leader of the Taliban in Pakistan, was killed in a drone strike. This attack can be seen as part of a decapitation strategy, which is frequently used by states. Often being perceived as a symbol of their organisation, jihadist terrorist leaders take important positions in their groups and beyond. It is therefore not surprising that counter-terrorism strategies often target the leadership of terrorist organisations. However, open source data provide only limited information on these leaders and what sets them apart from other members of their organisation. This Research Note brings together the fragmented information on 66 jihadist terrorist leaders in a new dataset, suggesting the existence of a set of common characteristics of jihadist terrorist leaders. Furthermore, when comparing leaders and followers, this study argues that, on the one hand they differ from them when it comes to religious background and criminal records. On the other hand, they are quite similar when it comes to characteristics such as education and socio-economic backgrounds. The most important finding, however, is that leaders tend to have substantial battlefield experience. Many of them have fought in Afghanistan. This suggests that Syria may become (or perhaps already has become) the breeding ground for a new generation of jihadist terrorist leaders. Show less
A central issue with many interpretations of radicalization remains their tendency to overemphasize the role of extremist beliefs in motivating involvement in terrorism. A er elaborating on... Show moreA central issue with many interpretations of radicalization remains their tendency to overemphasize the role of extremist beliefs in motivating involvement in terrorism. A er elaborating on this critique, the authors propose that ‘fanaticism’, a concept developed by Taylor in the early 1990s, o ers a way of overcoming this de ciency in radicalization-based approaches through its conditional understanding of when radical beliefs can lead to violent behavior. Primary-sources driven empirical analysis supports both the critique of radicalization and the discussion of fanaticism’s bene ts. Results are relevant to both academics and counterterrorism practitioners working to understand the role of extremist beliefs in motivating involvement in terrorist violence. Show less
Narrative is intimately connected to victimization and radicalization. Trouble, the notion that drives narrative, is often coupled with victimization: the experience of suffering intentional harm.... Show moreNarrative is intimately connected to victimization and radicalization. Trouble, the notion that drives narrative, is often coupled with victimization: the experience of suffering intentional harm. This experience can play a turning point in the stories that radicals construct about their own lives and thus play a role in their pathway to radicalization. In this article, three main themes of narrative will be further explored in relation to victimization and radicalization: identity, emotions, and culture. Central in this article is the discussion on how narrative can contribute to theory and research into victimological processes in radicalization, while offering new means to further develop key constructs. Show less
While the study of victimology and radicalization mainly focuses on those who suffered from terrorist attacks, this article explores the role of victimological processes in deradicalization.... Show moreWhile the study of victimology and radicalization mainly focuses on those who suffered from terrorist attacks, this article explores the role of victimological processes in deradicalization. Experts from different international deradicalization initiatives were interviewed. Using the narrative framework with its three key concepts—identity, emotion, and culture—as set forth by Pemberton and Aarten in this issue, the relationship between victimization and deradicalization is more thoroughly examined. Key findings include the delicacy of the term “victim” in radicals’ narrative identity, the power of narrative in triggering and transmitting emotions, and the importance of a former radical that acknowledges the narratives of the radical and offers alternative narratives to their radicalized ideologies. Show less
This book is the first attempt to understand Boko Haram in a comprehensive and consistent way. It examines the early history of the sect and its transformation into a radical armed group. It... Show moreThis book is the first attempt to understand Boko Haram in a comprehensive and consistent way. It examines the early history of the sect and its transformation into a radical armed group. It analyses the causes of the uprising against the Nigerian state and evaluates the consequences of the on-going conflict from a religious, social and political point of view. The book gives priority to authors conducting fieldwork in Nigeria and tackles the following issues: the extent to which Boko Haram can be considered the product of deprivation and marginalisation; the relationship of the sect with almajirai, Islamic schools, Sufi brotherhoods, Izala, and Christian churches; the role of security forces and political parties in the radicalisation of the sect; the competing discourses in international and domestic media coverage of the crisis; and the consequences of the militarisation of the conflict for the Nigerian government and the civilian population, Christian and Muslim. Show less
La violence a été omniprésente dans l'Afrique du XXe siècle, et si son impact politique a été vu sous l'angle de l'État, la portée sociale et culturelle de la violence, elle, a été minimisée.... Show moreLa violence a été omniprésente dans l'Afrique du XXe siècle, et si son impact politique a été vu sous l'angle de l'État, la portée sociale et culturelle de la violence, elle, a été minimisée. Or la violence telle qu'elle se manifeste actuellement en Afrique australe (Zimbabwe), occidentale (Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire), centrale (Congo(s), Centrafrique), orientale (Éthiopie/Érythrée, Somalie, Soudan) et septentrionale (Algérie) doit uniquement être considérée par rapport à l'Histoire. Il s'agit d'un processus de destruction de la cohésion sociale, de déshumanisation, qui est transmissible. L'impact du colonialisme sur la violence africaine ne doit pas être oublié, comme le montre l'exemple de l'absurdité de la répartition des terres en Namibie, au Zimbabwe et en Afrique du Sud. Le génocide rwandais est un concentré des nombreux facteurs de violence qui, en Afrique, peuvent se rejoindre pour exploser. L'élément de l'impunité, comme dans les cas de viol, pratique qui se répand dans les cas de conflits en Afrique, joue un rôle. Un facteur nouveau, comme lors de l'opération "Restore Hope" en Somalie en 1992, est l'apprentissage de la médiatisation comme arme de guerre. [Résumé ASC Leiden] Show less
