Thousands of concrete bunkers, built during the communist dictatorship of Enver Hoxha, are scattered all over Albania. Previously, they have mostly been examined on the basis of their symbolic... Show moreThousands of concrete bunkers, built during the communist dictatorship of Enver Hoxha, are scattered all over Albania. Previously, they have mostly been examined on the basis of their symbolic meanings, but not on their materiality. This essay investigates this materiality by exploring the concept of material agency and examining concrete, the bunkers’ defining material. During the ‘bunkerisation’ of Albania, concrete’s agency was somewhat limited. The communist dictatorship could use the material at their will. It was after the dictatorship however, that concrete’s agency became apparent. As a result of concrete’s properties the bunkers are now involuntary monuments to the past. Show less
The footprints of North Korean influence can be found all over Africa, most clearly in the form of monuments, museums, and government buildings constructed using forced labour. Such prominent... Show moreThe footprints of North Korean influence can be found all over Africa, most clearly in the form of monuments, museums, and government buildings constructed using forced labour. Such prominent projects, which are potent symbols of African nationalism, simultaneously adopt the socialist-realist visual style that is predominant in Pyongyang, the DPRK capital. It makes them highly recognisable markers. Less visible, however, is the forced labour that precedes the joyful opening of a new monument, museum, or government building. The main objective of this chapter is to provoke ideas about a framework to study North Korean forced labour in Africa, and stimulate further work in this field. First, the chapter provides a historical context of North Korean activities in Africa. The seeds of the fruitful cooperation between the DPRK and African countries were sown during the liberation struggles that raged across the continent between the 1960s and 1990s. The subsequent section focuses on a single case study, namely Zimbabwe, to highlight this relationship. Finally, the foundations for a research framework are laid out in the third part, with special attention to methodology and sources. A number of preliminary findings serve as a conclusion. Show less
