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The strong global trend of prohibiting employment discrimination based on sexual orientation
Waaldijk, C. 2021
The strong global trend of prohibiting employment discrimination based on sexual orientation
Article / Letter to editor
open access
2023-12-31T00:00:00Z
Over the last 30 years, more than 85 countries have prohibited sexual orientation discrimination in employment. Enacting such legal prohibitions has thereby become the most common form of legal... Show moreOver the last 30 years, more than 85 countries have prohibited sexual orientation discrimination in employment. Enacting such legal prohibitions has thereby become the most common form of legal recognition of homosexual orientation (more so than the decriminalisation of homosexual sex or the opening up of family law to same-sex partners). The trend is global (ten countries in Africa, more in Asia/Oceania, many in Europe and the Americas). The trend is reflected in supranational rules of the European Union and the Organisation of American States and also in decisions of international human rights bodies. On the basis of these numbers and developments, and in light of the various factors that help explain the strength of this global trend, the author argues that it is to be expected that the trend will continue to reach more and more countries. Explicit legal prohibitions of sexual orientation discrimination in employment can play a useful – perhaps central – role amongst other legal, educational, and social strategies aimed at increasing LGB inclusion.This article in the Dutch Journal for Gender Studies (Tijdschrift voor Genderstudies, https://www.aup-online.com/content/journals/13883186) is based on a presentation the author gave at the international conference on LGBTIQ+ Workplace Inclusion (Leiden University, 20-21 May 2021). See also the video recording of this presentation at: https://video.leidenuniv.nl/media/t/1_jiu0iuyw (part 1, 15 minutes) and https://video.leidenuniv.nl/media/t/1_qytk06b6 (part 2, 37 minutes). Show less
Global Index on Legal Recognition of Homosexual Orientation (GILRHO) - provisional data 1966-2011
Waaldijk, Kees 2019
Global Index on Legal Recognition of Homosexual Orientation (GILRHO) - provisional data 1966-2011
Dataset
open access
The Global Index on Legal Recognition of Homosexual Orientation (GILRHO), is being developed by Kees Waaldijk at Leiden University, with the help of many others. It is work in progress, covering... Show moreThe Global Index on Legal Recognition of Homosexual Orientation (GILRHO), is being developed by Kees Waaldijk at Leiden University, with the help of many others. It is work in progress, covering all 200 currently-independent countries of the world for every year since 1961.In GILRHO, for each year, countries can be given index points for eight categories of laws:  decriminalization (one point for legalization of sex between same-sex adults, and one for equalization of the age of consent), anti-discrimination legislation (one point for an explicit prohibition in the field of employment, and one for this in the field of goods and services), and couple recognition (one point for recognition of same-sex cohabitation, one for introduction of registered partnership, one for allowing adoption by same-sex partner(s), and one for opening up marriage to them). So a maximum of eight points, with a half point given if the relevant law is or was only applicable in part(s) of a country.A full description of the methodology of GILRHO, and an analysis of its interaction with GDP per capita, can be found in the open access article: MVL Badgett, K Waaldijk & Y van der Meulen Rodgers, ‘The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: Macro-level evidence’ (120 World Development, August 2019, p. 1-14, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X19300695). More information about the sources and construction of GILRHO is provided in the report: MVL Badgett, S Nezhad, K Waaldijk & Y van der Meulen Rodgers, The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: An analysis of emerging economies (2014, Washington DC and Los Angeles, CA: USAID and The Williams Institute; https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/lgbt-inclusion-economic-dev). A short explanation of GILRHO in Dutch, in relation to public opinion, can be found in the paper: K Waaldijk, ‘Van strafbaar tot huwbaar – homorecht wereldwijd’ (2015, https://hdl.handle.net/1887/37242).GILRHO has been developed on the basis of constantly improving versions of a footnoted legal dataset originally presented in the paper: K Waaldijk, ‘Legal recognition of homosexual orientation in the countries of the world’ (2009 conference The Global Arc of Justice at UCLA; Los Angeles, CA: The Williams Institute, http://hdl.handle.net/1887/14543). Since then the legal dataset has been expanded and corrected on the basis of many sources (including the annual reports on State-Sponsored Homophobia published since 2006 by ILGA (the International Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans and Intersex Association, https://ilga.org/state-sponsored-homophobia-report). The legal dataset has not yet been published.Parts of the numerical index data of GILRHO (as they were by 2014) have now been published. First the provisional index data for 39 countries over the years 1980-2014 were published in the 2014 report by Badgett et al. (mentioned above, p.  60-61). And later the provisional index data for 132 countries for the years 1966-2011 have been published in the data file accompanying the 2019 article by Badgett et al. (mentioned above, spreadsheet in Appendix A, which also contains other data from other sources); this data file is also attached here. The published numerical index data of GILRHO and its underlying legal dataset are subject to further corrections and updates. Over the coming years, more comprehensive versions of GILRHO and of its legal dataset will be published. Show less
Vijftien jaar openstelling huwelijk - Naar een huwelijksrecht ongeacht gerichtheid en geslacht
Waaldijk, C. 2016
Vijftien jaar openstelling huwelijk - Naar een huwelijksrecht ongeacht gerichtheid en geslacht
Article / Letter to editor
open access
On the occasion of the 15th anniversary of the first legislation in the world that opened up marriage to same-sex couples (in the Netherlands, 1 April 2001) the author investigates if it would be... Show moreOn the occasion of the 15th anniversary of the first legislation in the world that opened up marriage to same-sex couples (in the Netherlands, 1 April 2001) the author investigates if it would be possible to make marriage law, and in particular filiation law, completely orientation-neutral. He bases his analysis in the travaux préparatoires of the wording of the right to marry in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in other human rights documents. The demonstrates that the words “men and women” in the Universal Declaration have never been intended to exclude same-sex couples from marriage. On the contrary, those words were used to emphasize the gender-neutral character of the right to marry. Nevertheless, as regards parenting even Dutch law still makes a distinction between women and men – and thereby between heterosexual and lesbian marriages (especially when the child is conceived with semen from a known donor).  The author analyses how these last distinctions can be eliminated (also with respect to surnames, and also in the interest transgenders and intersex people). He concludes that this is possible by merging the Civil Code articles on legal motherhood and legal fatherhood. The new rule could simply start with “Parent is the person who…”. And among other things it could provide that “parent” is the person who at the time of birth of a child is the married or registered partner of the person who gives birth, unless another person, with the consent of both partners, has acknowledged the child before it is born. Thereby the law would no longer distinguish between children conceived with or without a sperm donor, between children conceived with a known or unknown donor, or between children born to a lesbian or heterosexual couple. And so (Dutch) marriage law would become completely gender-neutral and orientation-neutral.  Show less
Il diritto di relazionarsi: l’importanza della parola “orientamento” nel diritto comparato dell’orientamento sessuale
Waaldijk, C. 2015
Il diritto di relazionarsi: l’importanza della parola “orientamento” nel diritto comparato dell’orientamento sessuale
Article / Letter to editor
open access
This Italian version of this article is online at www.articolo29.it/genius, the English version at scholarship.law.duke.edu/djcil/vol24/iss1/4, the Dutch version at hdl.handle.net/1887/24920, and... Show moreThis Italian version of this article is online at www.articolo29.it/genius, the English version at scholarship.law.duke.edu/djcil/vol24/iss1/4, the Dutch version at hdl.handle.net/1887/24920, and the Vietnamese version at hdl.handle.net/1887/24934.The right to establish and develop relationships with other human beings was first articulated — as an aspect of the right to respect for private life — by the European Commission of Human Rights (in 1976). Since then such a right has been recognised in similar words by national and international courts, including the U.S. Supreme Court (Roberts v. U.S. Jaycees), the European Court of Human Rights (Niemietz v. Germany), the Constitutional Court of South Africa (National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality), and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (Ortega v. Mexico). This lecture traces the origins of this right, linking it to the meaning of the word ‘orientation’ and to the basic psychological need for love, affection and belongingness (Maslow 1943). It proposes to speak of ‘the right to relate’, and argues that this right can be seen as the common theme in all issues of sexual orientation law (ranging from decriminalisation and anti-discrimination, to the recognition of refugees and of same-sex parenting). This right can be used as the common denominator in the comparative study of all those laws in the world that are anti-homosexual, or that are same-sex-friendly. The right to establish (same-sex) relationships implies both a right to come out, and a right to come together. The right to develop (same-sex) relationships is being made operational through legal respect, legal protection, legal recognition, legal formalization, and legal recognition of foreign formalization. Show less
Van strafbaar tot huwbaar: homorecht wereldwijd (presentatie op Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, Den Haag)
Waaldijk, C. 2015
Van strafbaar tot huwbaar: homorecht wereldwijd (presentatie op Ministerie van Buitenlandse Zaken, Den Haag)
Event
open access
Met de door hem ontwikkelde Global Index on Legal Recognition of Homosexual Orientation (GILRHO) geeft Kees Waaldijk op een schaal van nul tot acht aan, hoe ver een land is met het uit het... Show moreMet de door hem ontwikkelde Global Index on Legal Recognition of Homosexual Orientation (GILRHO) geeft Kees Waaldijk op een schaal van nul tot acht aan, hoe ver een land is met het uit het strafrecht halen van homoseksualiteit, met het verbieden van homodiscriminatie en met het erkennen van gelijkgeslachtelijke stellen. Elk land kan in totaal acht punten krijgen voor belangrijke juridische stappen inzake homoseksuele gerichtheid: decriminalisering, gelijke leeftijdsgrenzen in het strafrecht, verbod van discriminatie in de arbeid, verbod van discriminatie bij goederen en diensten, erkenning van ongehuwd samenwonen, invoering van geregistreerd partnerschap, openstelling van adoptie, en openstelling van het huwelijk. Indien een bepaalde stap slechts in een deel van een land is gezet, levert dat een halve punt op in GILRHO. Deze index is nog in ontwikkeling, maar de voorlopige waarden voor de meeste landen van de wereld van 1961 tot 2015 kunnen al vergeleken worden met andere indicatoren (zoals Gross Domestic Product per capita, of uitkomsten van de World Values Survey met betrekking tot homoseksualiteit). Dat wordt zichtbaar gemaakt in de moving bubble chart die Kees Waaldijk ontwikkeld heeft in samenwerking met Derk Geene MSc, Jingshu ZhuLLM en het Centre for Innovations van Universiteit Leiden. Zie de screen-shots in de online hand-out bij deze lezing, en zie ook het persbericht over deze lezing op www.law.leidenuniv.nl/nieuws/waaldijk-presenteert-global-index.html. De samenhang tussen GILRHO enerzijds en economische ontwikkeling anderzijds is sterk. Wisselwerking lijkt waarschijnlijk. Dat geldt ook voor de relatie tussen GILRHO en maatschappelijke opvattingen over homoseksualiteit en homoseksuelen. De spreker heeft de opzet van GILRHO, plus de GILRHO data voor 39 landen over alle jaren van sinds 1980, eerder uitgebreid gepresenteerd in een rapport dat hij samen met Lee M.V. Badgett et al. schreef: The Relationship between LGBT Inclusion and Economic Development: An Analysis of Emerging Economies, Los Angeles & Washington DC: The Williams Institute at UCLA School of Law & US Agency for International Development, 2014. Show less
The Relationship between LGBT Inclusion and Economic Development: An Analysis of Emerging Economies
Badgett, M.V.L.; Nezhad, S.; Waaldijk, C.; Meulen Rodgers, Y. van der 2014
The Relationship between LGBT Inclusion and Economic Development: An Analysis of Emerging Economies
External research report
open access
Greater inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in emerging economies is positively associated with a country’s economic development, according to this study. The... Show more

Greater inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in emerging economies is positively associated with a country’s economic development, according to this study. The findings suggest that LGBT equality should be part of economic development programs and policies. The study analyzes the impact of the treatment of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people on economic development in 39 emerging economies and other selected countries, and presents findings that demonstrate a link between LGBT rights and economic output. The study uses, for the first time, the Global Index on Legal Recognition of Homosexual Orientation (GILRHO, created by Dutch law professor Kees Waaldijk) which establishes eight categories of legal recognition and protection for lesbians and gay men. The study also uses a provisional index on transgender rights.The study (online at www.usaid.gov and at williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu) finds:

  • A positive correlation between per capita GDP and legal rights for LGB and transgender people across countries. Using a regression model to account for other factors that influence development, the relationship remains strong. One additional right in the GILRHO is associated with approximately $320 in GDP per capita, or about 3 percent of the average GDP per capita in the sample countries. An increase in GILRHO is also associated with a higher human development index (HDI) value.
  • A steady increase in the level of rights of lesbians and gay men in emerging economies. On average, the countries in the study recognized one right relating to sexual orientation in 1990. By 2011, that number increased to over three rights according to the GILRHO.

The researchers also found substantial evidence in many countries that discrimination and violence against LGBT people create economic harms for individuals that also affect a country’s economic performance.

Show less
Same-Sex Partnership, International Protection (update 2013)
Waaldijk, C. 2014
Same-Sex Partnership, International Protection (update 2013)
Part of book or chapter of book
some documents under embargo until 2024-10-01
2024-10-01T00:00:00Z
This article is available online at http://opil.ouplaw.com. International protection for same-sex partnership is a topic that has seen important developments recently, reflecting more extensive... Show moreThis article is available online at http://opil.ouplaw.com. International protection for same-sex partnership is a topic that has seen important developments recently, reflecting more extensive national developments in a growing number of countries. These national and international developments are likely to continue and to reinforce each other. The current state of international law seems to be quite clear on two points: discrimination between unmarried different-sex cohabitants and unmarried same-sex cohabitants is prohibited, and exclusion of same-sex couples from marriage is (probably) still permissible. In between those two points the field is less clear. There is growing support for the proposition that a registered partnership or same-sex marriage validly contracted in one country should be recognized by international organizations and — for certain purposes — also by other countries. And there are reasons to expect that international bodies will apply the prohibition of indirect discrimination to situations where same-sex partners are being excluded from certain legal benefits, because these are only available to married partners. This indirect discrimination argument, which focuses on providing specific benefits, rather than on obtaining status, has been accepted already in several domestic courts. In the short run, persuading international human rights courts and bodies to apply it will probably be the most effective way of increasing the international protection of same-sex partnership. Several countries have, in response to claims that marriage should be opened up to same-sex couples, introduced a form of registered partnership. Assuming that international human rights law will not soon require all countries in the world to open up marriage to same-sex couples, and assuming that many legislatures will be reluctant to attach all rights and obligations of marriage to non-registered cohabitation, it seems possible that some day international human rights courts and bodies will start to require that countries should introduce some alternative to marriage. Any claims in this field deserve serious attention, because, as the European Court of Human Rights has consistently put it, the right to respect for private life encompasses ‘the right to establish and develop relationships with other human beings’. Show less