People belonging to sexual minorities and people who do not conform to gender stereotypical roles still have a disadvantaged position in society. To promote inclusivity, it is important to... Show morePeople belonging to sexual minorities and people who do not conform to gender stereotypical roles still have a disadvantaged position in society. To promote inclusivity, it is important to understand how individuals are socialized into heteronormativity: everyday ways in which heterosexuality and traditional gender roles are positioned as normal and natural. In this dissertation, I examine the extent to which individuals (adolescents in particular) are socialized with heteronormativity by the national context in which they live, by Dutch schoolbooks and within Dutch families.Individuals appear to be socialized with heteronormativity in different ways: at the national level, progressive laws appear to be important, in school textbooks gender stereotypical patterns, underrepresentation of women and exclusion of sexual minorities, and within families the transmission of gender stereotypical and homophobic attitudes from parents to children. It appears that there is still a long way to go to achieve inclusion based on gender and sexual orientation. It seems important to continue to investigate both conscious and unconscious heteronormative messages and to address them in policy. More representation of counter-stereotypical role models and the normalization of public expressions and relationships of lesbian women and gay men seem necessary. Show less
Strengthening social support has been recognized as a potentially effective strategy to enhance parenting self-efficacy, but empirical evidence is limited. This study examined the association... Show moreStrengthening social support has been recognized as a potentially effective strategy to enhance parenting self-efficacy, but empirical evidence is limited. This study examined the association between perceived social support and parenting self-efficacy.Data of 647 parents of children aged 0–8 years, gathered in the CIKEO cohort study in the Netherlands, were analysed. Data were collected between October 2017 and December 2019. Multivariable linear regression models were used to examine the association between social support and parenting self-efficacy. The mean age of the participants was 33.8 years (SD = 4.9); 94.9% mothers. At the start of the study, 15.1% parents perceived low to moderate social support. Parents who experienced lower levels of social support at the start of the study reported lower parenting self-efficacy at follow-up (β: 0.13; 95% CI: 0.05, 0.21), independent of potential socio-demographic confounders. Experiencing an increase in perceived social support during the study period was associated with an increase in parenting self-efficacy (β: 0.15; 95% CI: 0.10, 0.21).Our findings indicate perceived social support is associated with parenting self-efficacy among parents of children aged 0–8 years. Future longitudinal studies need to confirm our findings and may examine which social support interventions are effective in strengthening parenting self-efficacy. Show less
This dissertation aimed to examine the ethnic socialization context in the upbringing of Chinese-Dutch children, specifically three social-contextual factors: parents, children’s books, and the... Show moreThis dissertation aimed to examine the ethnic socialization context in the upbringing of Chinese-Dutch children, specifically three social-contextual factors: parents, children’s books, and the COVID pandemic. Results reveal that Chinese-Dutch children evaluate their ingroup and the White outgroup most positively, followed by the Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) outgroup, and the Black outgroup least positively. Stronger maternal endorsement of multiculturalism is associated with lower child ethnic prejudice (in terms of less ingroup preference). In addition, results demonstrate maternal self-report ethnic-racial socialization strategies and the observed behaviors that reflect color-evasiveness and white normativity. Furthermore, results show an overrepresentation of White authors, illustrators, and characters, and a preference for light skin color in East Asian characters in illustrations in Chinese children’s books, suggesting a form of current postcolonial influences on Chinese children’s literature. Furthermore, results indicate ethnicity-related attitude differences among mothers participating after than before the COVID outbreak, with higher perceived discrimination and stronger ethnic identity. A lower ingroup rejection among Chinese-Dutch children was found in the post-COVID-outbreak group than in the pre-COVID-outbreak group. This dissertation can foster a better understanding of the interethnic relations in the underrepresented Chinese group and elucidate the ethnicity-related consequences of the pandemic in this group. Show less
Wieringen L. van; Weggemans D.J.; Liem M.C.A. 2022
With the recent rise and fall of IS, academics and policy makers around the world are expressing concerns about the fate of children of former foreign fighters. Will they follow in their parents’... Show moreWith the recent rise and fall of IS, academics and policy makers around the world are expressing concerns about the fate of children of former foreign fighters. Will they follow in their parents’ footsteps? In this paper, we argue that in light of this discussion, the intergenerational transmission of extreme beliefs deserves a research agenda of its own. The transmission of extreme ideologies, such as extremism and cultism, constitutes a unique topic, not previously captured in traditional transmission studies. The concepts commonly used in popular media, such as ‘brainwashing’ and ‘indoctrination’, similarly fall short when trying to understand this phenomenon. Instead, a multidisciplinary approach centered around the concept intergenerational transmission is proposed. We present some of our preliminary literature findings on this topic, and consider their relation to broader theoretical frameworks. We conclude with several considerations and suggestions for future research, to better understand the intergenerational transmission of extreme ideologies in all its complexity. Show less
The overarching goal of this dissertation was to investigate parenting processes in relation to affective well-being in families in the daily flow of life from different perspectives (i.e.,... Show moreThe overarching goal of this dissertation was to investigate parenting processes in relation to affective well-being in families in the daily flow of life from different perspectives (i.e., adolescent, mother, father), on different levels (i.e., objective, momentary, and daily), and in a clinical sample (families with an adolescent with a depression) in addition to community samples. Our findings underline the importance of daily parental warmth and criticism of mothers and fathers for adolescents’ well-being. In addition, we showed that adolescents, parents, and their perceptions of parenting influence each other and that becoming more attuned to each other’s intention and needs is essential. Importantly, we consistently demonstrated that not only the extent and direction of the dynamic processes between parenting and affect in daily life differs between, but also within persons and families. This stresses the need for research focusing on individual processes and combining quantitative with qualitative measures. The use of more idiographic approaches would not only enable gaining more insight into these differences between individuals, but also contribute to identifying parenting practices that work for almost all adolescents. This would facilitate the development of interventions combining universal parenting principles with suggestions for tailoring it to individual- or family-specific situations. Show less
This dissertation describes the findings of six studies on mental health problems in the family context, specifically focusing on the associations with the parent-child relationship, parenting... Show moreThis dissertation describes the findings of six studies on mental health problems in the family context, specifically focusing on the associations with the parent-child relationship, parenting behaviors and experiences of childhood maltreatment. The aim is to better understand the risk factors, development and transmission of common psychological problems in order to contribute to prevention and treatment strategies for common psychological problems such as anxiety and depression.Overall, the findings underline the importance of the family context in the development and levels of mental health problems. In addition to the impact of one's own negative parenting experiences, including lack of warmth and experiences of emotional or physical abuse, negative parenting experiences of one's siblings are also associated with elevated anxiety and depressive symptom levels.We also found that externalizing problems of fathers and children have a negative impact on the parent-child interactions. In addition, we found that children with behavioral problems during early adolescence experience harsher parental discipline, even three years later.In the current treatment guidelines for common mental disorders, most therapies focus on the individual. An (additional) systemic approach and considering past and present family relationships in therapy, can be of additional value. For example, supporting families with interventions to improve the parent-child relationship can be helpful in the short and long term. Moreover, (early) treatment of psychological and behavioral problems of the parent or child might be beneficial for all family members. Show less
This dissertation aimed to shed light on the study of attachment theory in areas other than western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD; Henrich et al., 2010) societies that... Show moreThis dissertation aimed to shed light on the study of attachment theory in areas other than western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD; Henrich et al., 2010) societies that dominate the literature. We aimed to describe the extent to which the attachment theory core hypotheses are supported by research in Latin America and specifically in a rural Peruvian Andean area. Show less
Anxiety disorders are globally one of the most prevalent and disabling forms of psychopathology in adults and children. Having a parent with an anxiety disorder multiplies the risk of anxiety... Show moreAnxiety disorders are globally one of the most prevalent and disabling forms of psychopathology in adults and children. Having a parent with an anxiety disorder multiplies the risk of anxiety disorders in the ofspring, although the specifc mechanisms and processes that play a role in this intergenerational transmission remain largely unknown. According to information processing theories, threat-related biases in cognitive processing are a causal mechanism in the development and maintenance of anxiety. These theories propose that individuals with anxiety are more likely to cognitively process novel stimuli in their environment as threatening. Creswell and colleagues proposed a theoretical model that highlighted the role of these cognitive biases as a mechanism in the intergenerational transmission of anxiety (Creswell et al., in Hadwin, Field (eds) Information processing biases and anxiety: a developmental perspective, Wiley, pp 279–295, 2010). This model postulated signifcant associations between (1) parents’ and children’s threat-related cognitive biases (2) parents’ threatrelated cognitive biases in their own and their child’s environment, (3) parents’ threat-related cognitive biases and parenting behaviors that convey anxiety risk to the ofspring (e.g., modeling of fear, and verbal threat information transmission), and (4) parenting behaviors and child threat-related biases. This theoretical review collated the recent empirical work testing these four core hypotheses of the model. Building on the reviewed empirical work, an updated conceptual model focusing on threat-related attention and interpretation is proposed. This updated model incorporates the links between cognition and anxiety in parents and children and addresses the potential bidirectional nature of parent–child infuences. Show less
The aim of this dissertation was to provide insight in interethnic prejudice of children in the Netherlands and attitudes and ideologies that they are exposed to through two socialization agents:... Show moreThe aim of this dissertation was to provide insight in interethnic prejudice of children in the Netherlands and attitudes and ideologies that they are exposed to through two socialization agents: parents and children’s books. Specifically attitudes and ideologies based on intergroup contact theories and diversity ideologies were of interest. This dissertation is a first step in examining the basis for applying prejudice-reducing theories based on social learning theory to the specific multi-ethnic Dutch context. Overall, results show that interethnic prejudice is found in various forms among young children in the Netherlands. Furthermore, intergroup contact approaches to improve children’s interethnic attitudes may face some obstacles, as results show that parents might be more or less willing to facilitate interethnic contact with different ethnic groups, intergroup contact effects are not always found, and ethnic diversity and thus indirect contact opportunities in popular books for children are somewhat limited. Furthermore, results show that multiculturalist rather than colorblind diversity approaches can benefit interethnic attitudes of children in dominant ethnic groups, but that the latter are prevailing in popular children’s books. This dissertation can help move both research and the development of practical programs on improving interethnic attitudes among children in the Netherlands forward. Show less
Self-regulation refers to the ability to deliberately control one’s affect and behavior to meet certain standards such as customs, norms and social expectations, and to pursue long-term goals (Kopp... Show moreSelf-regulation refers to the ability to deliberately control one’s affect and behavior to meet certain standards such as customs, norms and social expectations, and to pursue long-term goals (Kopp, 1982). Problems with self-regulation can result in significant personal as well as social problems such as substance addiction (e.g., drugs, alcohol and cigarettes), health problems (e.g., obesity and eating disorders), violence and crime (e.g., Baumeister et al., 2015; Hirschi, 2004; Johnson et al., 2012). Self-regulation emerges in early infancy and increases dramatically in later infancy and toddlerhood. This process has been described as the development from external regulation depending on caregivers to independent self-regulation (Calkins, 2002). During this transition, both infant factors (e.g., infant attention) and social factors (e.g., parental behaviors) contribute to the development of self-regulation (e.g., Bernier et al., 2010; Miyake et al., 2000). As mother-infant and father-infant relationships provide different experiences for infants, the parental impact on self-regulation may also differ between mothers and fathers (e.g., Braungart‐Rieker et al., 1998; Feldman et al., 2003). Yet, most parenting and infant research has focused on mothers, whereas fathers – and other family members with a caregiving role – are rarely investigated. Moreover, empirical studies of parenting and infant development have largely been restricted to North America and Western Europe (e.g., Bornstein, 2015; Tomlinson et al., 2014). As some evidence shows that the association between parental behaviors and the process of infant development is dependent on country and the associated cultural context (e.g., Deater- Deckard et al., 2011; Landford et al., 2016), it is also important to carry out research in non-Western countries to understand the generalizability of theories built in Western contexts and primarily rooted in Western tradition to non-Western populations. China—a non-Western country—has the world’s largest population, with traditions of multigenerational co-residence (including grandparents). However, few empirical studies have focused on grandparenting, parenting and child development. The current dissertation longitudinally investigated the parental role in infant self-regulation during the first two years of life in the Netherlands and China, and also specifically focused on the role of grandparents in China. Show less
Ample research has shown that more household chaos is related to lower parenting quality, but it is yet unknown whether this is a causal relation. This dissertation focuses on two research... Show moreAmple research has shown that more household chaos is related to lower parenting quality, but it is yet unknown whether this is a causal relation. This dissertation focuses on two research questions. The first is whether household chaos has a causal effect on parenting. The second is whether the effect of household chaos on parenting is stronger for parents with certain characteristics, such as high sensory-processing sensitivity (SPS), low self-regulation, and more impulsivity. Two experimental studies were conducted in which household chaos was manipulated. The results show that household chaos affects both positive and negative parenting, but only in demanding parenting situations. Moderation by impulsivity was not found and moderation by SPS and by self-regulation was inconsistent. Regarding SPS, this may exacerbate the effect of household chaos on parenting in case of extreme differences between or high levels of household chaos. Regarding self-regulation, parents with low self-regulation may not have enough self-regulation capacities to simultaneously lower their levels of household chaos and refrain from harsh discipline. These results form a promising vantagepoint for further research, which could eventually lead to prevention and intervention programs to improve parenting by reducing household chaos. Show less
Emotional mimicry, the tendency to automatically and spontaneously reproduce others’ facial expressions, characterizes human social interactions from infancy onwards. Yet, little is known about the... Show moreEmotional mimicry, the tendency to automatically and spontaneously reproduce others’ facial expressions, characterizes human social interactions from infancy onwards. Yet, little is known about the factors modulating its development in the first year of life. This study investigated infant emotional mimicry and its association with parent emotional mimicry, parent-infant mutual attention, and parent dispositional affective empathy. One hundred and seventeen parent-infant dyads (51 six-month-olds, 66 twelve-month-olds) were observed during video presentation of strangers’ happy, sad, angry, and fearful faces. Infant and parent emotional mimicry (i.e., facial expressions valence-congruent to the video) and their mutual attention (i.e., simultaneous gaze at one another) were systematically coded second-by-second. Parent empathy was assessed via self-report. Path models indicated that infant mimicry of happy stimuli was positively and independently associated with parent mimicry and affective empathy, while infant mimicry of sad stimuli was related to longer parent-infant mutual attention. Findings provide new insights into infants’ and parents’ coordination of mimicry and attention during triadic contexts of interactions, endorsing the social-affiliative function of mimicry already present in infancy: emotional mimicry occurs as an automatic parent-infant shared behavior and early manifestation of empathy only when strangers’ emotional displays are positive, and thus perceived as affiliative. Show less
This dissertation aimed to contribute to the quality of foster care addressing three main objectives: The first objective was to investigate if existing parenting interventions are effective in... Show moreThis dissertation aimed to contribute to the quality of foster care addressing three main objectives: The first objective was to investigate if existing parenting interventions are effective in supporting/improving parenting and child outcomes in foster care using a meta-analytic approach. The second objective was to study the effectiveness of an adapted version of Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) for foster care, i.e., VIPP-FC. The implementation of VIPP-SD in different types of families and in childcare settings was first reviewed, with special attention to VIPP-FC. Subsequently, the study protocol of the randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigating the effectiveness of VIPP-FC was described. In addition, the results of this RCT regarding the effectiveness of VIPP-FC on parenting behavior and attitudes were presented. The third objective was to examine correlates of indiscriminate friendliness (IF) displayed by foster children. To answer this question, the relations of attachment security, parental sensitivity, and child inhibitory control with IF were examined using data collected during the pretest of the VIPP-FC RCT. Results are described and discussed in different chapters, and implications for clinical practice and recommendations for future research are additionally provided. Show less
Windhorst, D.A.; Fang, Y.; Fierloos, I.N.; Crone, M.R.; Mourik, K. van; Jonkman, H.; ... ; Raat, H. 2019
Foster and adoptive parents often face challenges while taking care of children who, due to their adverse early life experiences, are at risk of developing insecure attachment relationships,... Show moreFoster and adoptive parents often face challenges while taking care of children who, due to their adverse early life experiences, are at risk of developing insecure attachment relationships, behavior problems, and stress dysregulation. Several intervention programs have been developed to help foster and adoptive parents to overcome these challenges. In the current study, a series of eight meta-analyses were performed to examine the effectiveness of these intervention programs on four parent outcomes (sensitive parenting, k = 11, N = 684; dysfunctional discipline, k = 4, N = 239; parenting knowledge and attitudes, k = 7, N = 535; parenting stress, k = 18, N = 1,306), three child outcomes (attachment security, k = 6, N = 395; behavior problems, k = 33, N = 2,661; diurnal cortisol levels, k = 3, N = 261), and placement disruption (k = 7, N = 1,100). Results show positive effects for the four parent outcomes and child behavior problems, but not for attachment security, child diurnal cortisol levels, or placement disruption. Indirect effects on child outcomes may be delayed, and therefore long-term follow-up studies are needed to examine the effects of parenting interventions on children. Show less
The aim of this thesis is to increase our knowledge of individual differences in the neural processing and appraisal of children’s faces that differ in their degree of resemblance with the... Show moreThe aim of this thesis is to increase our knowledge of individual differences in the neural processing and appraisal of children’s faces that differ in their degree of resemblance with the participant’s face. Chapter 2 focuses on participants’ neural responses to child faces that differ in their degree of resemblance with the participant’s face, both in neutral and threatening contexts. Moderating effects of love withdrawal and empathy are examined to explore associations between participants’ experiences with love withdrawal, their levels of empathy and their neural processing of facial resemblance. In Chapter 3, we examine how participants’ evaluations of the different child faces on a range of negative and positive criteria are affected by children’s degree of resemblance with the participant’s face. In addition, we explore how experiences of love withdrawal and FFA activity moderate participants’ appraisal of these child faces. Chapter 4 focuses on the test-retest reliability of the fMRI data acquired during the face processing paradigm we used to examine the effects of facial resemblance on participants’ brain activity. Show less
To thrive as an individual and within society, children need to master the ability to control their behavior and adapt it to social rules and standards. They also need to acquire the social... Show moreTo thrive as an individual and within society, children need to master the ability to control their behavior and adapt it to social rules and standards. They also need to acquire the social competence to interact and communicate with others. Studies showing the relevance of behavioral control and social competence for children’s future development give rise to the search for factors that are associated with these competencies. These factors can be characteristics of the child, factors within the child’s social environment, and factors within the physical and socioeconomic environment. In the current thesis we aimed to identify some of these factors associated with the development of behavioral control in early childhood, and with prosocial behavior in early to mid-adolescence. We assessed four types of behavioral control: parent-reported effortful control, observed cheating behavior, delay of gratification, and response inhibition. For prosocial behavior, one type was assessed: observed compensating behavior towards an excluded peer. The results show that there is quite some variation in children’s level of behavioral control as well as in adolescents’ level of prosocial behavior and that these levels can be related to child characteristics, factors in their social environment, physical, and socioeconomic environment in a meaningful way. Show less
Het terugdringen van agressie is in de afgelopen jaren in toenemende mate een maatschappelijke prioriteit geworden. Agressie in de vroege kindertijd vergroot de kans op latere agressieproblemen en... Show moreHet terugdringen van agressie is in de afgelopen jaren in toenemende mate een maatschappelijke prioriteit geworden. Agressie in de vroege kindertijd vergroot de kans op latere agressieproblemen en antisociaal gedrag. In de peutertijd is er al een groep hoog-agressieve kinderen te identificeren die later in de ontwikkeling meer persistente, ernstigere vormen van agressie laat zien. Belangrijk is om veranderbare factoren te identificeren die samenhangen met het ontstaan en/of de instandhouding van het probleemgedrag. Het ouderlijk reflectief functioneren (RF) is in dat kader een interessant concept, aangezien deze vaardigheid te trainen is. In dit proefschrift is de invloed van het RF-vermogen van moeder op de ontwikkeling van (voorlopers van) gedragsproblemen in de vroege kindertijd, in het bijzonder fysieke agressie, bekeken. Geconcludeerd kan worden dat het RF-vermogen van de moeder een belangrijke rol speelt bij het ontwikkelen van (voorlopers van) gedragsproblemen. Over het algemeen genomen lijkt een beter prenataal RF-vermogen van de moeder samen te hangen met een kleinere kans op het ontwikkelen van vroege fysieke agressie. De bevindingen suggereren dat het bij de preventie en aanpak van vroege gedragsproblemen belangrijk is om te investeren in het verbeteren van het ouderlijk RF, bij voorkeur al tijdens de zwangerschap. Show less
Mourik, K. van; Crone, M.R.; Pels, T.V.M.; Reis, R. 2016
Conclusion: Results indicate that beliefs regarding the cause and controllability of problems are important to understand parents' motivation to participate in parenting support. Notable... Show moreConclusion: Results indicate that beliefs regarding the cause and controllability of problems are important to understand parents' motivation to participate in parenting support. Notable differences were found regarding the period during the child's life that parenting support was perceived as most relevant. Motivation to participate was higher during various stages of transition, which ranged from the transition to parenthood, to toddlerhood, the age of seven, and adolescence. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Show less
