Background: Prolonged exposure (PE) is an effective treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).Objective: This study aimed to analyse the cost-effectiveness of three exposure-based... Show moreBackground: Prolonged exposure (PE) is an effective treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).Objective: This study aimed to analyse the cost-effectiveness of three exposure-based treatments in patients with childhood abuse-related PTSD.Method: A net–benefit analysis was conducted alongside a pragmatic randomized controlled trial with participants (N = 149) randomized to three conditions: PE (n = 48), intensified PE (i-PE, n = 51), and phase-based PE [Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR) + PE, n = 50]. Assessments took place at baseline (T0), post-treatment (T3), 6 month follow-up (T4), and 12 month follow-up (T5). Costs stemming from healthcare utilization and productivity losses were estimated using the Trimbos/iMTA questionnaire for Costs associated with Psychiatric Illness. Quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) were based on the 5-level EuroQoL 5 Dimensions (EQ-5D-5L) using the Dutch tariff. Missing values of costs and utilities were multiply imputed. To compare i-PE to PE and STAIR + PE to PE, pair-wise unequal-variance t-tests were conducted. Net–benefit analysis was used to relate costs to QALYs and to draw acceptability curves.Results: Intervention costs did not differ across the three treatment conditions. Total medical costs, productivity losses, total societal costs, and EQ-5D-5L-based QALYs did not differ between treatment conditions either (all p > .10). At the relevant €50,000/QALY threshold, the probability of one treatment being more cost-effective than another was 32%, 28%, and 40% for PE, i-PE, and STAIR-PE, respectively.Conclusion: Three equally effective treatments were compared and no differences in cost-effectiveness between treatments were found. Therefore, we advocate the implementation and adoption of any of the treatments and endorse shared decision making. Show less
Hoekstra, M.; Veelen, N. van; Leeuwen, J. van; Nijdam, M.J.; Vermetten, E. 2023
Background: As Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents significantly impacts their well-being, effective treatment is of great importance. Little is known, however, about the novel,... Show moreBackground: As Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adolescents significantly impacts their well-being, effective treatment is of great importance. Little is known, however, about the novel, multi-modal virtual reality supported, exposure-based psychotherapeutic interventions such as 3MDR in this population.Objective: To describe the 3MDR treatment of an adolescent with PTSD who did not respond to previous exposure-based PTSD interventions.Method: A 14-year-old girl diagnosed with PTSD received six sessions of 3MDR embedded in family therapy.Result: The patient tolerated the 3MDR intervention very well. Personalized music and self-selected pictures appeared to be a good fit, contributing to enhanced engagement in and adherence to the therapy. She no longer met criteria for PTSD post-intervention, and at 18 months follow-up.Conclusion: This case report suggests that 3MDR has potential as a trauma treatment for adolescents with treatment-resistant PTSD. Show less
Does, F.H.S. van der; Nagamine, M.; Wee, N.J.A. van der; Chiba, T.; Edo, N.; Kitano, M.; ... ; Giltay, E.J. 2023
Background: After the Great East Japan Earthquake [GEJE], approximately 70,000 Japan Ground Self Defense Force [JGSDF] personnel were deployed, risking Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder [PTSD]. The... Show moreBackground: After the Great East Japan Earthquake [GEJE], approximately 70,000 Japan Ground Self Defense Force [JGSDF] personnel were deployed, risking Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder [PTSD]. The network approach to psychopathology suggests that symptoms may cause and exacerbate each other, resulting in the emergence and maintenance of disorders, including PTSD. It is therefore important to further explore the temporal interplay between symptoms. Most studies assessing the factor structure of the Impact of Event Scale-Revised [IES-R] have used cross-sectional designs. In this study, the structure of the IES-R was re-evaluated while incorporating the temporal interplay between symptoms.Methods: Using Dynamic Time Warping [DTW] the distances between PTSD symptoms on the IES-R were modelled in 1120 JGSDF personnel. Highly correlated symptoms were clustered at the group level using Distatis three-way principal component analyses of the distance matrices. The resulting clusters were compared to the original three subscales of the IES-R using a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA).Results: The DTW analysis yielded four symptom clusters: Intrusion (five items), Hyperarousal (six items), Avoidance (six items), and Dissociation (five items). CFA yielded better fit estimates for this four-factor solution (RMSEA = 0.084, CFI = 0.918, TLI = 0.906), compared to the original three subscales of the IES-R (RMSEA = 0.103, CFI = 0.873, TLI = 0.858).Conclusions: DTW offers a new method of modelling the temporal relationships between symptoms. It yielded four IES-R symptom clusters, which may facilitate understanding of PTSD as a complex dynamic system. Show less
Goeree, N.; Dekker, N.L.; Reuver, Y. de; Haagen, J.F.G.; Vermetten, E. 2023
While spouses of military veterans have not been directly exposed to threats during deployment, they often experience a substantial post-deployment-related health burden while living with and... Show moreWhile spouses of military veterans have not been directly exposed to threats during deployment, they often experience a substantial post-deployment-related health burden while living with and caring for a partner with deployment-related mental health issues. Drawing from in-depth interviews, this study examined how female spouses of military veterans deal with the psychosocial effects of deployment. We show how these women cope. They keep their family lives going by maintaining hope for the future. We argue that hope is a dynamic practice between reality and possibility, and different forms of hope co-exist. These range from temporary formulations of present-centered hope, and permanent hopes directed towards the future. We illustrate how spouses challenge discourses around curative futures and adjust their hopes to maintain a more satisfactory everyday life and a positive horizon towards the future. Show less
Isaksson, J.; Isaksson, M.; Stickley, A.; Vermeiren, R.; Koposov, R.; Schwab-Stone, M.; Ruchkin, V. 2023
Community violence exposure (CVE) is one of the most common adverse childhood experiences worldwide. Despite this, its potential effect on disordered eating in adolescents from different cultures... Show moreCommunity violence exposure (CVE) is one of the most common adverse childhood experiences worldwide. Despite this, its potential effect on disordered eating in adolescents from different cultures is underexplored. In the present cross-sectional study, self-reported data were collected from 9751 students (Mean age = 14.27) from Belgium, Russia and the US on CVE (witnessing violence and violence victimization), eating disorder (ED) symptoms (ED thoughts with associated compensatory behaviors), and comorbid symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression and anxiety. Increased CVE (from no exposure to witnessing to victimization) was associated with more ED symptoms, and the associations remained significant after adjusting for comorbid conditions. The associations were similar for adolescents across the three countries. No gender differences were observed in the association between CVE and ED symptoms, even though girls in general reported more ED symptoms than boys. We conclude that CVE appears to be associated with ED symptoms in three culturally different samples of adolescents. Show less
Isaksson, J.; Isaksson, M.; Stickley, A.; Vermeiren, R.; Koposov, R.; Schwab-Stone, M.; Ruchkin, V. 2023
Community violence exposure (CVE) is one of the most common adverse childhood experiences worldwide. Despite this, its potential effect on disordered eating in adolescents from different cultures... Show moreCommunity violence exposure (CVE) is one of the most common adverse childhood experiences worldwide. Despite this, its potential effect on disordered eating in adolescents from different cultures is underexplored. In the present cross-sectional study, self-reported data were collected from 9751 students (Mean age = 14.27) from Belgium, Russia and the US on CVE (witnessing violence and violence victimization), eating disorder (ED) symptoms (ED thoughts with associated compensatory behaviors), and comorbid symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression and anxiety. Increased CVE (from no exposure to witnessing to victimization) was associated with more ED symptoms, and the associations remained significant after adjusting for comorbid conditions. The associations were similar for adolescents across the three countries. No gender differences were observed in the association between CVE and ED symptoms, even though girls in general reported more ED symptoms than boys. We conclude that CVE appears to be associated with ED symptoms in three culturally different samples of adolescents. Show less
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent psychiatric condition that significantly impacts daily functioning in patients but lacks adequate treatment options. 3,4... Show morePost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent psychiatric condition that significantly impacts daily functioning in patients but lacks adequate treatment options. 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as an adjunct to psychotherapy for the treatment of PTSD has been studied increasingly for the last two decades and has shown promising results through quantitative data. However, few qualitative studies have been conducted to investigate patients’ experiences who participate in these trials. This study intends to complement and clarify the quantitative findings resulting from a Phase-II clinical trial for assessing the safety and efficacy of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD by using a qualitative approach based on available material of 4 recorded and transcripted integrative sessions per participant. An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was conducted for 7 participants who met criteria for severe PTSD to develop a deeper understanding of the treatment and its efficacy. Analysis results provided real-life statements from participants that reflect perceived mechanisms of change and showed to what extent their proposed working mechanisms integrate into daily life. Show less
Jones, C.; Smith-MacDonald, L.; Veelen, N. van; VanderLaan, A.; Kaneva, Z.; Dunleavy, R.S.; ... ; Bremault-Phillips, S. 2022
Background As provisions of mental healthcare services to military and veteran populations increases the risk to service providers developing secondary traumatic stress (STS), efforts are needed to... Show moreBackground As provisions of mental healthcare services to military and veteran populations increases the risk to service providers developing secondary traumatic stress (STS), efforts are needed to examine the impact of delivering novel interventions which may include 3MDR. As a virtual-reality supported intervention, 3MDR exposes the patient, therapist and operator to graphic and sensory stimuli (i.e. narratives, imagery, smells, and music) in the course of the intervention. 3MDR is actively being researched at multiple sites internationally within military and veteran populations. It is, therefore, crucial to ensure the safety and wellbeing of 3MDR therapists and operators who are exposed to potentially distressing sensory stimuli. Objective The purpose of this study is to qualitatively examine the impact and experiences of STS amongst therapists and operators in delivering 3MDR. For this study, impact will be defined as therapists or operators experiencing perceived STS as a result of delivering 3MDR. Methods This exploratory qualitative study recruited 3MDR therapists and operators (N = 18) from Canada, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States who had previously delivered 3MDR therapy. Telephone or video-conferencing interviews were used to gather data that was subsequently transcribed and thematically analyzed. Results Four themes emerged among the therapists (n = 13) and operators (n = 5): (1) personal cost and benefits of 3MDR, (2) professional paradox of a 3MDR therapist, (3) perceived effect of 3MDR on patients, and (4) recommendations for future 3MDR use. Conclusions STS was not noted to be a significant challenge for 3MDR therapists and operators. Future research may investigate optimal means of providing training and ongoing support for 3MDR therapists and operators. Show less
Background: The prognosis for underweight individuals with an eating disorder (ED) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is worse than for their peers without these comorbid symptoms. This... Show moreBackground: The prognosis for underweight individuals with an eating disorder (ED) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is worse than for their peers without these comorbid symptoms. This qualitative study explores the experiences of trauma-focused Imagery Rescripting (ImRs) therapy of underweight inpatients being treated for an ED. Objective: To test the feasibility and to improve ImRs by understanding the experiences and perspectives of people with an ED and PTSD who, when underweight, received ImRs as an adjunct to their inpatient ED treatment. Method: To explore how underweight people with an ED experience and perceive ImRs, we used a qualitative study design involving semi-structured interviews with 12 participants. After analysis, the data were summarized and classified within a thematic framework that focused on experiences and improving the ImRs method. Results:The thematic analysis resulted in the following 6 main themes; (1) Expectations of ImRs; (2) Ability to participate in ImRs; (3) Effect of ImRs; (4) Experience of ImRs technique; (5) Conditions under which ImRs is given; (6) In depth-analysis. The results show that despite the fear of disappointment the participants appreciate addressing the PTSD and ED symptoms simultaneously. Further, results showed that it had been possible for them to attend ImRs but that the effects of ImRs were not uniformly perceived. Also, participants indicated that a caring context is important and that ImRs should not be scheduled immediately before a meal. Finally, the treatment generated hope. Conclusions: The findings of this study demonstrated the feasibility of the integration of ImRs trauma treatment for individuals who are being treated in an ED inpatient treatment setting, and are in contrast to standard practice where the focus of inpatient treatment has been ED-symptom improvement without comprehensively addressing past traumatic experiences during an underweight phase. Show less
Objectives: Several medical and psychiatric disorders have stage-based treatment decision-making methods. However, international treatment guidelines for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) fail... Show moreObjectives: Several medical and psychiatric disorders have stage-based treatment decision-making methods. However, international treatment guidelines for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) fail to give specific treatment recommendations based on chronicity or stage of the disorder. There is convincing evidence of a finite range of PTSD symptom trajectories, implying that different phenotypes of the disorder can be distinguished, which are highly relevant for a staging typology of PTSD. Methods: State-of-the-art review building on prior work on staging models in other disorders as a mapping tool to identify and synthesize toward PTSD. Results: We propose a four-stage model of PTSD ranging from stage 0: trauma-exposed asymptomatic but at risk to stage 4: severe unremitting illness of increasing chronicity. We favor a symptom description in various chronological characteristics based on neurobiological markers, information processing systems, stress reactivity, and consciousness dimensions. We also advocate for a separate phenomenology of treatment resistance since this can yield treatment recommendations. Conclusion: A staging perspective in the field of PTSD is highly needed. This can facilitate the selection of interventions that are proportionate to patients' current needs and risk of illness progression and can also contribute to an efficient framework to organize biomarker data and guide service delivery. Therefore, we propose that a neurobiologically driven trajectory-based typology of PTSD can help deduct several treatment recommendations leading to a more personalized and refined grid to strategize, plan and evaluate treatment interventions. Show less
Results of neuroimaging datasets aggregated from multiple sites may be biased by site-specific profiles in participants' demographic and clinical characteristics, as well as MRI acquisition... Show moreResults of neuroimaging datasets aggregated from multiple sites may be biased by site-specific profiles in participants' demographic and clinical characteristics, as well as MRI acquisition protocols and scanning platforms. We compared the impact of four different harmonization methods on results obtained from analyses of cortical thickness data: (1) linear mixed-effects model (LME) that models site-specific random intercepts (LME INT), (2) LME that models both site-specific random intercepts and age-related random slopes (LME INT+ SLP), (3) ComBat, and (4) ComBat with a generalized additive model (ComBat-GAM). Our test case for comparing harmonization methods was cortical thickness data aggregated from 29 sites, which included 1,340 cases with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (6.2-81.8 years old) and 2,057 trauma-exposed controls without PTSD (6.3-85.2 years old). We found that, compared to the other data harmonization methods, data processed with ComBat-GAM was more sensitive to the detection of significant case-control differences (X-2 (3) = 63.704, p < 0.001) as well as casecontrol differences in age-related cortical thinning (X-2 (3) = 12.082, p = 0.007). Both ComBat and ComBat-GAM outperformed LME methods in detecting sex differences (X-2 (3) = 9.114, p = 0.028) in regional cortical thickness. ComBat-GAM also led to stronger estimates of age-related declines in cortical thickness (corrected p-values < 0.001), stronger estimates of case-related cortical thickness reduction (corrected p-values < 0.001), weaker estimates of age-related declines in cortical thickness in cases than controls (corrected p-values < 0.001), stronger estimates of cortical thickness reduction in females than males (corrected p-values < 0.001), and stronger estimates of cortical thickness reduction in females relative to males in cases than controls (corrected p-values < 0.001). Our results support the use of ComBat-GAM to minimize confounds and increase statistical power when harmonizing data with non-linear effects, and the use of either ComBat or ComBat-GAM for harmonizing data with linear effects. Show less
Bremault-Phillips, S.; Bright, K.S.; Phillips, A.; Vermetten, E. 2022
Introduction: In the course of service, military members, leaders, and uniformed professionals are at risk of exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs). Serious mental health... Show moreIntroduction: In the course of service, military members, leaders, and uniformed professionals are at risk of exposure to potentially morally injurious events (PMIEs). Serious mental health consequences including Moral Injury (MI) and Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can result. Guilt, shame, spiritual/existential conflict, and loss of trust are described as core symptoms of MI. These can overlap with anxiety, anger, re-experiencing, self-harm, and social problems commonly seen in PTSD. The experiences of General (retired) Romeo Dallaire and other international experts who have led in times of crisis can help us better understand MI and recovery. Objectives: In honor of Dallaire, online opportunities were created for international students and leaders/experts to discuss topics of MI, stigma, and moral codes in times of adversity as well as the moral impact of war. We aimed to (1) better understand MI and moral dilemmas, and (2) identify key insights that could inform prevention of and recovery from MI. Materials and Methods: Webinars and conversations of 75-90 min duration on MI and recovery were facilitated by Leiden University, the University of Alberta and the Dallaire Institute for Children, Peace and Security between General Dallaire, world experts, and graduate students. Sessions were recorded, transcribed and thematically analyzed with NVivo using standard qualitative methodology. Results: Ninety four participants engaged in conversations. Student engagements were attended by participants [N = 51; female (29), male (22)] from the Netherlands and Canada. Conversations were held with international experts [N = 43; female (19) and male (24)] from North America, Europe, Australia and the global south. Themes included: (1) recognizing the impact of exposure to PMIEs, (2) reducing stigma around MI, and (3) embracing the spiritual depth of humanity. Conclusion: Exposure to PMIEs can have devastating impacts on military members, leaders and other uniformed professionals. This may lead to development of MI and PTSD. Recognizing MI as honorable may reduce stigma and psychological harm, and facilitate help-seeking among uniformed personnel and other trauma-affected populations. Salient efforts to address MI must include use of accurate measurements of MI and integrated holistic therapeutic approaches, inclusive of spiritual and social components. Urgency remains regarding the prediction, identification and treatment of MI. Show less
Houtert, E.A.E. van; Rodenburg, T.B.; Vermetten, E.; Endenburg, N. 2022
Due to its novelty and lack of empirical study it remains unclear if a service dog truly mitigates the burden of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. To cross sectionally investigate the... Show moreDue to its novelty and lack of empirical study it remains unclear if a service dog truly mitigates the burden of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. To cross sectionally investigate the effect of service dogs on veterans and first aid responders with PTSD, we studied subjective and physiological parameters in 65 individuals divided over four groups. These groups were: veterans and first aid responders with PTSD and a service dog (n = 20), with PTSD and a companion dog (n = 10), with PTSD without a dog (n = 12) and a group without PTSD (n = 23). We found that veterans and first aid responders with PTSD who had a service dog showed significantly less PTSD related symptoms, better sleep quality, and better wellbeing experience, than those with a companion dog. Those with a service dog additionally experienced fewer PTSD related symptoms than those without a service dog and tended to walk more than individuals without PTSD. No differences were found in cortisol levels between groups though and changes in both salivary cortisol and activity were not linked to improved welfare experience. Though the use of physiological measurement methods thus warrants more research, our study indicates that the subjective experience of wellbeing, sleep quality and PTSD related symptoms is improved by the presence of a service dog. Show less
Background: Military members and veterans exhibit higher rates of injuries and illnesses such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) because of their increased exposure to combat and other... Show moreBackground: Military members and veterans exhibit higher rates of injuries and illnesses such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) because of their increased exposure to combat and other traumatic scenarios. Novel treatments for PTSD are beginning to emerge and increasingly leverage advances in gaming and other technologies, such as virtual reality. Without assessing the degree of technology acceptance and perception of usability to the end users, including the military members, veterans, and their attending therapists and staff, it is difficult to determine whether a technology-based treatment will be used successfully in wider clinical practice. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology model is commonly used to address the technology acceptance and usability of applications in 5 domains.Objective: Using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology model, the purpose of this study was to determine the technology acceptance and usability of multimodal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation (3MDR) on a virtual reality system in the primary user group (military members and veterans with treatment-resistant PTSD, 3MDR therapists, and virtual reality environment operators).Methods: This mixed methods embedded pilot study included military members (n=3) and veterans (n=8) with a diagnosis of combat-related PTSD, as well as their therapists (n=13) and operators (n=5) who completed pre-post questionnaires before and on completion of 6 weekly sessions of 3MDR. A partial least squares structural equation model was used to analyze the questionnaire results. Qualitative data from the interviews were assessed using thematic analysis.Results: Effort expectancy, which was the most notable predictor of behavioral intention, increased after a course of 3MDR with the virtual reality system, whereas all other constructs demonstrated no significant change. Participants' expectations of the technology were met, as demonstrated by the nonsignificant differences in the pre-post scores. The key qualitative themes included feasibility and function, technical support, and tailored immersion.Conclusions: 3MDR via a virtual reality environment appears to be a feasible, usable, and accepted technology for delivering 3MDR to military members and veterans who experience PTSD and 3MDR therapists and operators who facilitate their treatment. Show less
Hoeboer, C.M.; Oprel, D.A.C.; Kooistra, M.J.; Schoorl, M.; Does, W. van der; Minnen, A. van; Kleine, R.A. de 2022
There is growing evidence that change in distress is an indicator of change during Prolonged Exposure (PE) for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, temporal sequencing studies... Show moreThere is growing evidence that change in distress is an indicator of change during Prolonged Exposure (PE) for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, temporal sequencing studies investigating whether change in distress precedes PTSD symptom decline are lacking. These studies are essential since the timeline between indicators of change and treatment outcome is a key assumption for mediation. The aim of the present study was to assess the temporal relationship between within-and between session change in subjective distress and PTSD symptom decrease. We analyzed session data from 86 patients with PTSD. Data were analyzed using dynamic panel models. We distinguished temporal effects (within-persons) from averaged effects (between-persons). Results regarding the temporal effect showed that within-session change in subjective distress preceded PTSD symptom improvement while the reversed effect was absent. Averaged within session change in subjective distress was also related to PTSD symptom improvement. Results regarding the temporal effect of between-session change in subjective distress showed that it did not precede PTSD symptom improvement. Averaged between-session change in subjective distress was related to PTSD symptom improvement. This study provides evidence for within-but not between session change in subjective distress as indicator of change during PE. We also found that the way of modeling potential indicators of change affects results and implications. We recommend future studies to analyze mediators during treatment using temporal rather than averaged effects. Show less
In the present study we measured the concentrations of cortisol, thyroid hormones, testosterone, and GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) in am blood plasma samples of combatants with an at least 10 year... Show moreIn the present study we measured the concentrations of cortisol, thyroid hormones, testosterone, and GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) in am blood plasma samples of combatants with an at least 10 year history of military psychological trauma (N = 74) divided in groups that either suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (N = 37) or are resistant (N = 37) as well as in a control group without traumatic experience in the anamnesis, (N = 34). PTSD symptoms were assessed using the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS). The results show that the am blood cortisol levels of individuals that were exposed to war zone experiences irrespective susceptibility for or resistance to PTSD were significantly higher than the values observed in the controls. Testosterone levels in PTSD patients differed neither from that observed in PTSD resistant nor control groups. In the resistant group testosterone levels were however significantly higher than in controls. The level of all thyroid hormones did not differ between the study groups. GABA level was significantly lower in the PTSD group compared with healthy controls. In the resistant group blood GABA levels were not significantly different from either PTSD patients or controls. In conclusion, the current data show that cortisol and to some extent testosterone may serve as biomarker of war zone stress per se, even if trauma was experienced at least ten years before, rather than of only PTSD or resistance to PTSD. GABA, in contrast, can be considered a potential marker of the protracted nature of PTSD. Show less
Service dogs are trained to assist humans. This assistance potentially exposes them to stressors To investigate if service dogs are exposed to more stressors than companion dogs we questioned... Show moreService dogs are trained to assist humans. This assistance potentially exposes them to stressors To investigate if service dogs are exposed to more stressors than companion dogs we questioned whether hair cortisol levels differed between both groups. We studied this by cutting a tuft of hair from the neck of 19 companion and 11 service dogs. Cortisol levels were subsequently analyzed via immunoassay and compared via a simple linear regression model. The influence of coat color, season, sex, other dogs, pets, or mental health diagnoses in the household was also checked . Results showed that cortisol values did not differ between service and companion dogs. Furthermore, none of the additional variables had an influence on cortisol levels. This lead to the conclusion that the service dogs in this study did not have higher hair cortisol levels than companion dogs Further study should be conducted as to why no difference did occur between groups and if this difference is persistent over time given that we only studied a period of up to two months' worth of hair cortisol. Show less
Service dogs are trained to assist humans. This assistance potentially exposes them to stressors To investigate if service dogs are exposed to more stressors than companion dogs we questioned... Show moreService dogs are trained to assist humans. This assistance potentially exposes them to stressors To investigate if service dogs are exposed to more stressors than companion dogs we questioned whether hair cortisol levels differed between both groups. We studied this by cutting a tuft of hair from the neck of 19 companion and 11 service dogs. Cortisol levels were subsequently analyzed via immunoassay and compared via a simple linear regression model. The influence of coat color, season, sex, other dogs, pets, or mental health diagnoses in the household was also checked . Results showed that cortisol values did not differ between service and companion dogs. Furthermore, none of the additional variables had an influence on cortisol levels. This lead to the conclusion that the service dogs in this study did not have higher hair cortisol levels than companion dogs Further study should be conducted as to why no difference did occur between groups and if this difference is persistent over time given that we only studied a period of up to two months’ worth of hair cortisol. Show less
Physical and sexual abuse during childhood can have long lasting consequences such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Prolonged Exposure (PE) is an established and effective guideline... Show morePhysical and sexual abuse during childhood can have long lasting consequences such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Prolonged Exposure (PE) is an established and effective guideline treatment for PTSD. Nevertheless, a considerable number of patients drop out from treatment or do not (completely) recover from PTSD during PE. It has been suggested that patients with PTSD resulting from childhood abuse are specifically at risk for suboptimal treatment outcomes. We carried out a randomized controlled trial with 149 patients with childhood abuse-related PTSD comparing PE with two innovations: intensified PE (iPE) and skills training in affective and interpersonal regulation followed by PE (STAIR+PE). We found that all treatments were safe and resulted in large improvements in PTSD symptoms. iPE and STAIR+PE did not improve treatment outcomes of PE, although iPE led to faster symptom improvements. Not all patients benefitted from the allocated treatment, but we found no contra-indications for the treatments. We found that a combination of patient characteristics was predictive of a larger effect size of PTSD symptom improvement in PE and iPE or STAIR+PE. We conclude that the three forms of exposure therapy were effective treatments for patients with childhood abuse-related PTSD. Show less
