The current study uses data from The BBC Loneliness Experiment to explore the social stigma of loneliness and how it varies by gender, age, and cultural individualism. We examined stigmatizing... Show moreThe current study uses data from The BBC Loneliness Experiment to explore the social stigma of loneliness and how it varies by gender, age, and cultural individualism. We examined stigmatizing judgements of people who are lonely (impressions of those who feel lonely and attributions for loneliness), perceived stigma in the community, and self-stigma (shame for being lonely and inclination to conceal loneliness), while controlling for participants’ own feelings of loneliness. The scores on most measures fell near the mid-point of the scales, but stigmatizing perceptions depended on the measure of stigmatization that was used and on age, gender, and country-level individualism. Multi-level analyses revealed that men had more stigmatizing perceptions, more perceived community stigma, but less self-stigma than women; young people had higher scores than older people on all indicators except for internal vs external attributions; and people living in collectivist countries perceived loneliness as more controllable and perceived more stigma in the community than people living in individualistic countries. Finally, young men living in individualistic countries made the most internal (vs. external) attributions for loneliness. We discuss the implications of these findings for understandings of loneliness stigma and interventions to address loneliness. Show less
This work examines strategic factors that impact women’s intention to express anger. Research suggests that women express anger to a lesser extent than they experience it (Hyers, 2007; Swim et al.,... Show moreThis work examines strategic factors that impact women’s intention to express anger. Research suggests that women express anger to a lesser extent than they experience it (Hyers, 2007; Swim et al., 2010), and we focus on the role of gender stereotypes in this phenomenon. We differentiate two “routes” by which gender stereotypes can lead women to avoid expressions of anger. First, in the stereotype disconfirmation route, women become motivated to avoid expressing anger because it supposedly disconfirms stereotypical prescriptions for women to be kind and caring. We also identify a stereotype confirmation route, in which women avoid anger expressions because anger confirms the stereotype that women are overly emotional. Across three experimental studies (Nstudy1 = 558, Nstudy2 = 694, Nstudy3 = 489), we show that women experienced anger about gender inequality, but were relatively reluctant to express the anger they felt. That is, there was evidence for an “Anger Gap.” Feminists in particular showed a large Anger Gap when it was suggested that anger might confirm stereotypes. This work demonstrates that stereotype information introduces strategic concerns that women must take into account when deciding whether to express anger about gender inequality. Additionally, this work highlights that the notion that anger confirms a stereotype can be as powerful in discouraging anger expressions as the idea (identified in previous work) that anger may disconfirm stereotypes. Show less
Barsamian Kahn, K.; Breen, J.A. van; Barreto, M.; Kaiser, C. 2021
Three studies examine how women’s benevolent sexism (BS) shapes support for other women’s agentic responses to gender‐based threat. In Study 1, women read vignettes about a woman who agentically... Show moreThree studies examine how women’s benevolent sexism (BS) shapes support for other women’s agentic responses to gender‐based threat. In Study 1, women read vignettes about a woman who agentically responded (vs. no response) to gender‐based threat (e.g., sexism). As hypothesized, BS predicted more positive attitudes towards the woman who chose not to challenge sexism and more negative attitudes towards the woman who did. Studies 2 and 3 focused on whether these effects are driven by the behaviour displayed by the target (response or not) or by the ideology it seeks to uphold (traditional or non‐traditional). There may be circumstances under which BS is associated with positive attitudes towards women’s agentic (i.e., non‐gender role conforming) behaviour, for instance, when it is used to support traditional gender roles. Studies 2 and 3 showed that when women’s agentic behaviour is used to uphold traditional gender roles (vs. challenge them), BS is positively associated with support for such behaviour. These findings underscore the importance of ideology underlying women’s agentic behaviour: BS can support women’s agentic responses that violate prescribed gender roles, so long as they reinforce the status quo. Show less
