This dissertation aimed to shed light on the study of attachment theory in areas other than western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD; Henrich et al., 2010) societies that... Show moreThis dissertation aimed to shed light on the study of attachment theory in areas other than western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD; Henrich et al., 2010) societies that dominate the literature. We aimed to describe the extent to which the attachment theory core hypotheses are supported by research in Latin America and specifically in a rural Peruvian Andean area. Show less
This dissertation aimed to contribute to the quality of foster care addressing three main objectives: The first objective was to investigate if existing parenting interventions are effective in... Show moreThis dissertation aimed to contribute to the quality of foster care addressing three main objectives: The first objective was to investigate if existing parenting interventions are effective in supporting/improving parenting and child outcomes in foster care using a meta-analytic approach. The second objective was to study the effectiveness of an adapted version of Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) for foster care, i.e., VIPP-FC. The implementation of VIPP-SD in different types of families and in childcare settings was first reviewed, with special attention to VIPP-FC. Subsequently, the study protocol of the randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigating the effectiveness of VIPP-FC was described. In addition, the results of this RCT regarding the effectiveness of VIPP-FC on parenting behavior and attitudes were presented. The third objective was to examine correlates of indiscriminate friendliness (IF) displayed by foster children. To answer this question, the relations of attachment security, parental sensitivity, and child inhibitory control with IF were examined using data collected during the pretest of the VIPP-FC RCT. Results are described and discussed in different chapters, and implications for clinical practice and recommendations for future research are additionally provided. Show less
This dissertation focused on the role of attachment-based interventions in child protection cases involving young children. The results confirmed that placement decisions are impacted by subjective... Show moreThis dissertation focused on the role of attachment-based interventions in child protection cases involving young children. The results confirmed that placement decisions are impacted by subjective factors, including professionals’ own attitudes and mind-set. Because we argue that the influence of subjective factors can be reduced by inserting relevant evidence into the decision-making process, we tested the effectiveness of one procedure that might produce such information. Evidence for the notion that implementing an attachment-based intervention in parenting capacity assessments can enhance the quality of placement decisions was partially found in this dissertation: We found initial evidence for improved reliability, but not for improved validity, of placement decisions. Taking these findings together with international evidence, we do tentatively conclude that attachment-based interventions can contribute to an improved quality of placement decisions. However, more research is needed to determine what implementation would be most fruitful in the Dutch child protection context. Finally, our finding that maltreating parents with more severe levels of childhood trauma benefited less from an attachment-based intervention implicates that we need to consider families’ individual needs when conducting interventions in this setting. This way, not only more parents will benefit from these interventions, their responses to these interventions might also be a more valid source of information to support placement decisions. Show less
The most difficult target group in mental health care for youth, is recognizable from social debates: An alarming example of a suicide or severe non-suicidal self-injury illustrates the... Show moreThe most difficult target group in mental health care for youth, is recognizable from social debates: An alarming example of a suicide or severe non-suicidal self-injury illustrates the vulnerability of these adolescents and underlines a powerless society. Notably, this target group is often excluded from scientific research. Hauber attributes this exclusion on the many psychiatric problems young people face and a rigid classification system. Theoretical models do not accommodate overlapping problems, despite the most serious conditions being characterized by such an overlap. Hauber described the need for a dimensional classification system to enable care providers to assess serious problems, such as an overlap of personality disorder, insecure attachment and non-suicidal self-injury. The influences of puberty, attachment insecurity and the adolescent’s social dynamics should be included in such a model. By having young people reflect in writing on their treatment, relevant information can be obtained to tailor personalized care, and drop-out can be minimized. New developments suggest improving resilience and connection with others, rather than just reducing symptoms. Hauber's research similarly showed the importance of connecting with others to grow emotionally in adolescence. This is a challenge in modern society, with loneliness being the highest mortality risk for humans. Show less
Even though John Bowlby (1907-1990) is generally regarded as the founder of attachment theory, Mary Ainsworth’s (1913-1999) contribution is considerable and goes beyond the design of the Strange... Show moreEven though John Bowlby (1907-1990) is generally regarded as the founder of attachment theory, Mary Ainsworth’s (1913-1999) contribution is considerable and goes beyond the design of the Strange Situation Procedure and the introduction of maternal sensitivity as decisive for a secure attachment relationship. Ainsworth worked in Toronto with William Blatz (1895-1964) for almost two decades before she moved to London and worked with Bowlby in 1950. Ainsworth was heavily influenced by Blatz and his security theory and infused Bowlby’s attachment theory in the making with elements of Blatz’s security theory. These elements, like for instance the secure base phenomenon, are clearly recognizable even now. The Strange Situation Procedure, an instrument Ainsworth designed to measure the quality of attachment in young children, can also be traced back to her time with Blatz: in the 1930s she designed instruments to measure the concept of security. The Strange Situation Procedure, however, was not the first of its kind: since the 1930s researchers had been experimenting with children, alone or in the company of their parents in unfamiliar surroundings, sometimes in the presence of a stranger. Taken together, we conclude that Ainsworth’s contribution to attachment theory is more significant than hitherto believed. Show less
The current thesis focuses on the longitudinal development of early-adopted children in the 1887/29874 Leiden Longitudinal Adoption Study (LLAS). In the LLAS, adopted children were followed from... Show moreThe current thesis focuses on the longitudinal development of early-adopted children in the 1887/29874 Leiden Longitudinal Adoption Study (LLAS). In the LLAS, adopted children were followed from infancy until young adulthood. In Chapter 1 we discuss the role of sensitive parenting and the precursors and developmental outcomes of attachment security. In the empirical study in Chapter 2 we report on the concurrent as well as longitudinal relations between maternal sensitivity, child temperament, and externalizing behavior problems. In the second empirical study in Chapter 3, we follow this line of enquiry and investigate concurrent and longitudinal relations between maternal sensitivity, child temperament and internalizing behavior problems. Chapter 4 reports on the final empirical study of the thesis, and focuses on the associations between maternal sensitivity and attachment in infancy and the diurnal cortisol curve in young adulthood. Our empirical studies show that maternal sensitivity in infancy and middle childhood indirectly predicts fewer internalizing behavior problems in adopted adolescents, and that maternal sensitivity in adolescence predicts less concurrent delinquent behavior. Attachment experiences in early life do not predict the adoptees' diurnal cortisol curve in later life. In Chapter 5 we discuss these results and some methodological issues more thoroughly. Show less
1887/26887 The use of center child care in Western countries has increased over the last three decades and is nowadays the most frequently used type of non-parental care for children aged zero to... Show more1887/26887 The use of center child care in Western countries has increased over the last three decades and is nowadays the most frequently used type of non-parental care for children aged zero to four (OECD, 2013). The aim of the current dissertation is to shed more light on indicators of child care quality in center child care and to answer the question whether narrow-focused caregiver interventions are effective in improving child care quality. The reported meta-analysis shows that narrow-focus intervention programs that target caregiver-child interaction and child social-emotional development through caregiver training are effective in improving child care quality. Moreover, we evaluated an attachment-based intervention program in a randomized controlled trial including 64 caregivers in Dutch child care centers. It is demonstrated that this program, the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline for Child Care (VIPP-CC), is effective in improving caregiver sensitivity and caregiver attitudes towards sensitive caregiving and discipline. Finally, we stress the importance of including novel indicators derived from environmental chaos theory in the assessment and improvement of child care quality and child wellbeing. Our results show that average noise levels and noise variability are important predictors of child emotional wellbeing in center care Show less
1887/26094 Chile has embarked on a road that must lead to the reduction of inequality gaps for the population. A public policy called Chile Growths With You has focused on an increase in the... Show more1887/26094 Chile has embarked on a road that must lead to the reduction of inequality gaps for the population. A public policy called Chile Growths With You has focused on an increase in the breadth of coverage of non-maternal care through childcare centers to provide equal opportunities in early childhood and onwards. This dissertation focuses on the quality of the early childcare environment in Chile and the role of ethnicity and socio-economic inequality. Ninety-five mother-child dyads were followed in their first year of life to examine changes in the attachment relationship and quality of the home environment, dependent on type of care (maternal care versus center daycare) and ethnicity (Mapuche versus non-Mapuche). Our results show that differences in quality of the home environment between the two ethnic groups are very small and that Mapuche families are distinguished from the majority group by lower income and lower maternal education. Fulltime daycare has no negative consequences for the attachment relationship and the quality of the home environment. Moreover, a positive change in attachment security was found but only for Mapuche children who attended daycare. Show less
We examined the development of international adoptees from infancy to young adulthood, and factors influencing developmental outcomes in middle childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. The... Show moreWe examined the development of international adoptees from infancy to young adulthood, and factors influencing developmental outcomes in middle childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. The results for cognitive development (Chapter 2) showed that early malnutrition influenced cognitive and health-related outcomes, but its consequences did not extend to socioeconomic success later in life. The human brain seems capable of adapting to changing environmental influences, but earlier placement in a positive family environment should be preferred (see also Chapter 1). The adoptees in the Leiden Longitudinal Adoption Study were exposed to few adversities due to their early adoptive placement, and the combination with the nurturing environment of a permanent adoptive family resulted in positive cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes (Chapters 2 and 3). Our results for longitudinal (sensitivity) and concurrent relations (reactivity to infant crying) with attachment representations in young adulthood (Chapters 3 and 4) clearly point to this role of the family environment in predicting social-emotional outcomes. High parenting quality is important, also in families where children do not share a common genetic basis with their parents. In sum, adoption can be seen as a positive intervention and the (adoptive) family environment matters for children growing up from infants to young adults. Show less
The development of self-regulation is one of the major challenges of a child’s healthy development. In the current thesis, the contribution and interplay of parental and biological factors in... Show moreThe development of self-regulation is one of the major challenges of a child’s healthy development. In the current thesis, the contribution and interplay of parental and biological factors in the development of self-regulation in preschoolers are studied in a large population-based cohort, the Generation R Study. We found that attachment insecurity in infancy was related to higher levels of toddler active resistance during Clean-Up. Maternal negative discipline was related to lower levels of committed compliance in toddlers, and the association between maternal positive discipline and child committed compliance was moderated by the child’s COMT rs4680 genotype, indicating that the association was stronger in children with the Met/Met variant than for children with other COMT genotypes. Maternal family-related stress during pregnancy predicted lower levels of toddler committed compliance through lower levels of maternal positive discipline. Maternal sensitivity was associated with lower levels of executive function problems and lower levels of internalizing problems in preschool age. In children with a relatively short corpus callosum in infancy, higher levels of maternal positive discipline predicted lower levels of inhibition problems. Our studies demonstrate the role of various aspects of positive parenting and mother-child relationship quality in preschool children’s regulation of emotions and behavior. Show less
Wat bepaalt de kwaliteit van gehechtheid? In een grootschalig onderzoek, Generation R, zijn de stresshuishouding en enkele kandidaatgenen van de kinderen onderzocht, en het gedrag van de ouder. De... Show moreWat bepaalt de kwaliteit van gehechtheid? In een grootschalig onderzoek, Generation R, zijn de stresshuishouding en enkele kandidaatgenen van de kinderen onderzocht, en het gedrag van de ouder. De gehechtheidsrelatie is de relatie tussen een kind en een ouder (of andere stabiele verzorger) die in het eerste levensjaar wordt opgebouwd. Veilig gehechte kinderen gebruiken hun ouder als veilige haven van waar ze de omgeving verkennen. Onveilig gehechte kinderen hebben hier moeite mee; zij kunnen niet de juiste balans vinden tussen contact met de ouder en het verkennen van de omgeving. Dit onderzoek laat zien dat onveilig gehechte kinderen heftiger op stress reageren dan veilig gehechte kinderen. Wanneer er sprake was van depressie in het leven van de moeder, leidt dit tot een verdere toename van stress bij de onveilig gehechte kinderen. Hetzelfde gold voor onveilig gehechte kinderen met een risico-gen dat verantwoordelijk is voor een minder goede stressregulatie. Verder vonden we dat sensitief opvoedgedrag van moeder leidde tot meer veilige gehechtheid, maar alleen wanneer het kind een bepaalde variant van een gen droeg dat van belang is bij het omgaan met stress. De resultaten laten de kwetsbaarheid en stressgevoeligheid van onveilig gehechte kinderen zien. Daarnaast kunnen we op basis van de huidige resultaten zeggen dat insensitief opvoedgedrag, depressie van moeder en genetische risico’s een rol spelen bij onveilige gehechtheid. De ontwikkeling van gehechtheid is complex, en het resultaat van het samenspel tussen biologische aspecten en de opvoedingsomgeving. Daarop moet toekomstig onderzoek dan ook gericht zijn. Show less
This thesis examined the development of adopted children to shed more light on the effects of deprivation on child development and the potential for catch-up and recovery after placement in the... Show moreThis thesis examined the development of adopted children to shed more light on the effects of deprivation on child development and the potential for catch-up and recovery after placement in the more advantageous environment of an adoptive family. In the first part of the thesis a meta-analysis is presented in which we compared adopted children’s attachment relationships with the normative attachment distribution of nonadopted children raised by their biological parents, and - as a comparison - we also compared the attachment distribution of foster children with the normative distribution. The second and third parts of the thesis focus on the development of former foster and post-institutionalized children, 11 to 16 months old at arrival, two and six months after their adoption from China. Several salient developmental domains were studied: attachment, cognitive and motor development, physical growth, stress regulation, and social-emotional behavior. Show less
In dit proefschrift staat ouderschap in de vroege kindertijd centraal, onder andere de reacties van volwassenen op het huilen van baby’s. Voor baby’s is huilen één van de belangrijkste manieren om... Show moreIn dit proefschrift staat ouderschap in de vroege kindertijd centraal, onder andere de reacties van volwassenen op het huilen van baby’s. Voor baby’s is huilen één van de belangrijkste manieren om te communiceren. Zo laten ze weten dat ze ergens behoefte aan hebben of zich niet lekker voelen. Maar niet alle ouders reageren op een sensitieve, liefdevolle manier: voor sommige ouders is het huilen van hun kind zo stressvol dat ze eerder op een hardhandige wijze reageren. In deze studie is onderzocht hoe volwassenen reageren op het huilen van een baby. Daarbij werd een standaard huilfragment van een pasgeboren kind gemanipuleerd en op verschillende hoogten afgespeeld. De toonhoogte van het huilgeluid en de manier waarop volwassenen het huilen interpreteren, bleken belangrijk te zijn. Hoge huilgeluiden vormen een risicofactor voor het stevig willen aanpakken van het kind. Zieke en premature kinderen hebben vaker zulke hoge huiltonen. Ook is onderzocht of verschillen in reactie op huilen erfelijk zijn. Dat is inderdaad het geval, maar niet voor alle aspecten van reageren op huilen. Verschillen in sensitieve reacties waren erfelijk bepaald, maar de neiging om het kind op een hardhandige manier aan te pakken niet. Show less
This thesis addressed the physiological impact of fear in 4- and 7-year-old children, induced by media and social fear-inducing tasks (the Trier Social Stress Test for Children). The main question... Show moreThis thesis addressed the physiological impact of fear in 4- and 7-year-old children, induced by media and social fear-inducing tasks (the Trier Social Stress Test for Children). The main question pertained to individual differences in physiological reactivity to fear-inducing stimuli. The possibly relevant factors of attachment security, the child’s temperamental fearfulness, and variations in the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR; long vs. short allele) were taken into account. Results showed that temperament, attachment, and genetic influences play significant and interactive roles in the expression of fear reactivity. A secure relationship affected the reactivity to media-induced fear stimuli in temperamentally more fearful children but not in less fearful children irrespective of children’s ages. This finding adds to the growing literature showing that children high in negative emotion are more susceptible to positive as well as negative rearing influences. Furthermore, we found evidence that reactivity to the social fear-inducing task was explained by a combination of variations in the serotonin transporter gene and attachment security. Children with a secure attachment representation and two long 5-HTT alleles showed the lowest levels of fear reactivity, indicating that physiological reactivity to a social fear-inducing task is a product of the child’s biology and environment. Show less
The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) was developed in the early 1980s to measure an adult’s attachment representation. Since then, it has been applied in more than 100 studies. This thesis aimed to... Show moreThe Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) was developed in the early 1980s to measure an adult’s attachment representation. Since then, it has been applied in more than 100 studies. This thesis aimed to shed light on some of the potentials and limitations of the AAI. We found that coherence, which is an important concept in attachment interviews, is not defined similarly by attachment experts, linguists, and non-experts. Therefore, it seems that a measure for coherence cannot make the AAI more easily accessible for non-attachment experts. Secondly, we showed that the attachment representations of adopted adolescents were related (1) to their own autonomy behaviors and mothers’ relatedness behaviors during a discussion task, (2) to the adolescents’ emotional investment in others, and (3) to the adolescents’ perceived support from others. Intelligence and perceived temperament were not associated with the adolescents’ attachment representation. These results support the validity of the AAI when assessed with (adopted) adolescents. Finally, we revealed that the AAI differentiates between adolescents with divergent physiological responses (interbeat interval reactivity) to attachment relevant situations: dismissing adolescents showed less physiological reactivity during the AAI than secure adolescents, while they appeared to be more stressed during a discussion task with their mothers. Show less
The thesis focuses on 5 studies examining the role of adult attachment in volunteering by defining volunteerism as a form of caregiving. By that we suggest an effect of one behavioral system,... Show moreThe thesis focuses on 5 studies examining the role of adult attachment in volunteering by defining volunteerism as a form of caregiving. By that we suggest an effect of one behavioral system, attachment, on another, caring or prosocial behaviors in individual or group settings. Studies 1 and 2 examined the links between adult romantic attachment, volunteer behavior, and volunteer motivations. Attachment avoidance was associated with less volunteering and with lowered altruistic and exploration volunteer motives, whereas attachment anxiety was associated with self-enhancing volunteer motives. Volunteering was associated with fewer interpersonal problems for those high in attachment anxiety. Study 3 ruled out the alternative interpretation that these links were due personality characteristics. In Study 4, the role of morality was explored. Levels of moral reasoning moderated the effects of attachment avoidance on volunteerism motives Study 5 examined attachment pattern differences in responses to manipulated group respect and disrespect. Attachment anxiety moderated the effect of group respect and disrespect inductions on group commitment, donations and effort expenditures. Overall, these findings are important because they suggest that attachment experiences influence one’s caregiving approach, not only in close relationships, but one’s caregiving approach to others in general, including strangers. Show less
No specific, systematic research existed focusing exclusively on late effects of surviving the Holocaust and its aftermath on the youngest child Holocaust survivors. Born between 1935 and 1944,... Show moreNo specific, systematic research existed focusing exclusively on late effects of surviving the Holocaust and its aftermath on the youngest child Holocaust survivors. Born between 1935 and 1944, they had endured persecution and deprivation in their first and most formative years. From trauma-experiential and child-developmental points of view, their peri-Holocaust experiences are different from older child survivors. They hold no recollections of a world that was peaceful and benevolent to enhance early development of basic trust. This set of studies focuses on the associations between early childhood peri-Holocaust experiences and adaptations at the beginning of old age in a __with-in design__ that compares three age cohorts in a non-convenience sample of 203 child Holocaust survivors, now living in Israel. Late-life implications of early traumatic stress for the adreno-cortical system were examined by assessing basal circadian cortisol release and cortisol reactivity to a stressor. Through several inventories severity of Holocaust survival exposure, current physical and psycho-social quality of life, and the role of Antonovsky__s Sense of Coherence as a protective factor were assessed. Results show mild to severe present-day repercussions of the Nazi persecutions, and a potentially moderating effect of the Sense of Coherence on later life impact of Holocaust survival experience. Show less
Autisme en veilige gehechtheid Men heeft lang gedacht dat kinderen met autisme, door hun problemen in sociale interacties en communicatie, niet in staat zijn om een emotionele band te ontwikkelen... Show moreAutisme en veilige gehechtheid Men heeft lang gedacht dat kinderen met autisme, door hun problemen in sociale interacties en communicatie, niet in staat zijn om een emotionele band te ontwikkelen met hun ouders, met andere woorden zich te hechten aan hun ouders. Empirisch onderzoek heeft echter laten zien dat kinderen met autisme wel degelijk gehechtheidsgedrag laten zien (Buitelaar, 1995). Uit onze meta-analyse bleek dat kinderen met autisme wel minder vaak veilig gehecht zijn dan kinderen zonder autisme. Dat geldt echter alleen voor kinderen met strikt gedefinieerd autisme en kinderen met autisme en een verstandelijke beperking. Het observeren van gehechtheid in een natuurlijke situatie heeft verschillende voordelen. De Attachment Q-sort (AQS; Vaughn & Waters, 1990; Waters, 1995) is ontwikkeld voor thuisobservatie van gehechtheid bij 'normale' kinderen, maar gebruik ervan bij kinderen met autisme blijkt gerechtvaardigd op grond van een studie onder 59 experts. Uit de literatuur komt naar voren dat de opvoeding van kinderen met autisme een groot beroep doet op de ouders. In onze studie bleek echter dat ouders van kinderen met autisme goed lijken om te kunnen gaan met de uitdagingen die gepaard gaan met het opvoeden van hun kind met autisme. Show less
The general objective of this thesis was to test the effectiveness of an early intervention program aimed at reducing externalizing problems in 1- to 3-year-old children by enhancing parental... Show moreThe general objective of this thesis was to test the effectiveness of an early intervention program aimed at reducing externalizing problems in 1- to 3-year-old children by enhancing parental sensitivity and adequate discipline strategies. A new intervention was designed for this study: the Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) The study consisted of a screening phase in a general population sample (N = 2408) and a randomized case-control intervention phase in a selected subsample of children with high levels of externalizing behavior problems (n = 237). The results of this thesis show that externalizing problems occur in children as young as 1 year of age and are moderately predictive of externalizing problems one year later. Furthermore, child temperament appears to be a moderator in the association between maternal discipline strategies and externalizing problems. Children with difficult temperaments are more susceptible to both negative discipline (i.e., showing more externalizing problems) and positive discipline (i.e., showing less externalizing problems) compared to children with relatively easy temperaments. Finally, the VIPP-SD intervention was effective in improving maternal attitudes towards sensitivity and sensitive discipline, enhancing actual maternal sensitive discipline practices, and decreasing the children's level of overactive behaviors. Show less
The first study of this thesis (Chapter 2) showed that the majority of the internationally adopted children are well adjusted, although a relatively large minority of adopted children had behavior... Show moreThe first study of this thesis (Chapter 2) showed that the majority of the internationally adopted children are well adjusted, although a relatively large minority of adopted children had behavior problems of clinical significance or were referred to mental health services compared with non-adopted children. Nevertheless, adoption may often be the best solution for a child who would otherwise be raised in an institution or in other adverse environments (see also Juffer, 2002; Van IJzendoorn et al., 2005). The second and third study (Chapters 3 and 4) showed several longitudinal and concurrent influences on the behavioral and social development of adopted adolescents. The second study (Chapter 3) showed that early-onset delinquency was associated with stress hyporeactivity. The differentiation between delinquency and aggression, and between childhood-onset and adolescence-onset delinquency (Moffitt, 1993) appeared to be important for our understanding of the development of externalizing problem behaviors. The third study (Chapter 4) showed that individual development from infancy through middle childhood to adolescence was rather stable and that concurrent environmental experiences and child characteristics were essential influences on middle childhood and adolescent social development. Early parent-child relationships did not determine in final form social development in adolescence, but they provided the basis for healthy social development through the influence on earlier social development, even in the absence of genetic similarities between children and parents. Bowlby__s (1973, 1980) thesis that adaptation is always a product of both developmental history and current circumstances was supported. Show less
