This report is the second output from the Joint Research Centre’s (JRC) Enlightenment 2.0 multi-annual research programme. The work started with the classical Enlightenment premise that reason is... Show moreThis report is the second output from the Joint Research Centre’s (JRC) Enlightenment 2.0 multi-annual research programme. The work started with the classical Enlightenment premise that reason is the primary source of political authority and legitimacy. Recognising that advances in behavioural, decision and social sciences demonstrate that we are not purely rational beings, we sought to understand the other drivers that influence political decision-making. The first output “Understanding our political nature: how to put knowledge and reason at the heart of policymaking” published in 20191, addressed some of the most pressing political issues of our age. However, some areas that we consider crucial to providing an updated scientific model of the drivers of political decision-making were not fully addressed. One of them is the impact of our contemporary digital information space on the socio-psychological mechanisms of opinion formation, decision-making and political behaviour. The JRC, together with a team of renowned experts addresses this knowledge deficit in a report that synthesises the knowledge about digital technology, democracy and human behaviour to enable policymakers to safeguard a participatory and democratic European future through legislation that aligns with human thinking and behaviour in a digital context. It is hoped that this report will prove useful as policymakers reflect upon the forthcoming European Democracy Action Plan, the Digital Services Act, the EU Citizenship Report 2020, as well as on how to legislate against disinformation. The report has been written in spring/summer of 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic took hold of Europe and the world. During this time, our democracies suffered while technology played a crucial role in keeping societies functioning in times of lockdown. From remote distance education to teleworking, religious services to staying in touch with family and friends, for many but not all, everyday activities moved online. Additionally, technological applications and initiatives multiplied in an attempt to limit the spread of the disease, treat patients and facilitate the tasks of overworked essential personnel. Conversely, however, significant fundamental rights questions have been raised as unprecedented initiatives to track, trace and contain the pandemic using digital technologies have proven controversial. Governments invoking emergency measures in support of public health decision-making, used advanced analytics to collect, process and share data for effective front-line responses that lacked transparency and public consultation. When used as an information source, social media have been found to present a health risk that is partly due to their role as disseminators of health-related conspiracies, with non-English language speakers being at greater risk of exposure to misinformation during the crisis. It is likely that these technologies will have a long-lasting impact beyond COVID-19. Yet despite the immediacy of the crisis, the authors invite the reader to take a longer perspective on technology and democracy to get a deeper understanding of the interrelated nuances. In dark times, we seek to bring light to the importance of understanding the influence of online technologies on political behaviour and decision-making. Show less
This article critiques key proposals of the United Kingdom’s “Online Harms” White Paper; in particular, the proposal for new digital regulator and the imposition of a “duty of care” on platforms.... Show moreThis article critiques key proposals of the United Kingdom’s “Online Harms” White Paper; in particular, the proposal for new digital regulator and the imposition of a “duty of care” on platforms. While acknowledging that a duty of care, backed up by sanctions works well in some environments, we argue is not appropriate for policing the White Paper’s identified harms as it could result in the blocking of legal, subjectively harmful content. Furthermore, the proposed regulator lacks the necessary independence and could be subjected to political interference. We conclude that the imposition of a duty of care will result in an unacceptable chilling effect on free expression, resulting in a draconian regulatory environment for platforms, with users’ digital rights adversely affected. Show less
Ouwerkerk, A.F. van; Bosada, F.M.; Liu, J.; Zhang, J.; Duijvenboden, K. van; Chaffin, M.; ... ; Christoffels, V.M. 2020
Rationale: Genome-wide association studies have identified a large number of common variants (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) associated with atrial fibrillation (AF). These variants are located... Show moreRationale: Genome-wide association studies have identified a large number of common variants (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) associated with atrial fibrillation (AF). These variants are located mainly in noncoding regions of the genome and likely include variants that modulate the function of transcriptional regulatory elements (REs) such as enhancers. However, the actual REs modulated by variants and the target genes of such REs remain to be identified. Thus, the biological mechanisms by which genetic variation promotes AF has thus far remained largely unexplored. Objective: To identify REs in genome-wide association study loci that are influenced by AF-associated variants. Methods and Results: We screened 2.45 Mbp of human genomic DNA containing 12 strongly AF-associated loci for RE activity using self-transcribing active regulatory region sequencing and a recently generated monoclonal line of conditionally immortalized rat atrial myocytes. We identified 444 potential REs, 55 of which contain AF-associated variants (P<10(-8)). Subsequently, using an adaptation of the self-transcribing active regulatory region sequencing approach, we identified 24 variant REs with allele-specific regulatory activity. By mining available chromatin conformation data, the possible target genes of these REs were mapped. To define the physiological function and target genes of such REs, we deleted the orthologue of an RE containing noncoding variants in theHcn4(potassium/sodium hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 4) locus of the mouse genome. Mice heterozygous for the RE deletion showed bradycardia, sinus node dysfunction, and selective loss ofHcn4expression. Conclusions: We have identified REs at multiple genetic loci for AF and found that loss of an RE at theHCN4locus results in sinus node dysfunction and reduced gene expression. Our approach can be broadly applied to facilitate the identification of human disease-relevant REs and target genes at cardiovascular genome-wide association studies loci. Show less
This article focuses on the role of government in relation to cybersecurity. Traditionally, cybersecurity was primarily seen as a technical issue. In recent years, governments have realised that... Show moreThis article focuses on the role of government in relation to cybersecurity. Traditionally, cybersecurity was primarily seen as a technical issue. In recent years, governments have realised that they, too, have a stake in securing the Internet. In their attempts to grapple with cybersecurity, governments often turn to technical solutions to ‘code away’ illegal or undesired behaviours. ‘Techno-regulation’ has become popular because it may seem to be an effective and cheap way of increasing control over end users’ behaviours and increasing cybersecurity. In this article, we will explain why using techno-regulation has significant downsides and, therefore, why it may be unwise to use it as a dominant regulatory strategy for securing the Internet. We argue that other regulatory strategies ought to be considered as well, most importantly: trust. The second part of this article explains that trust can be used as an implicit strategy to increase cybersecurity or as an explicit mechanism for the same goal. Show less
The Internet is, at present, the world’s most efficient communication system and facilitates the mass dissemination of information (good and bad) instantaneously across the globe often exacerbating... Show moreThe Internet is, at present, the world’s most efficient communication system and facilitates the mass dissemination of information (good and bad) instantaneously across the globe often exacerbating any effective regulatory oversight. Though initially conceived by commentators and users as a speech utopia, the phenomena known as ‘fake news’ is contributing to concerns that the Internet is now in danger of becoming a dystopia for the free flow of information and ideas. With the problem of fake news endangering various topics, it is of particular importance when it affects news, reputation, political communication or other topics relevant for a contemporary and political public sphere. A study from June 2016 suggests more UK citizens get their news from social media than traditional media outlets. Analysts expect this number to increase in both the short and long-term. A recent study has shown that 62% of US citizens get their news via social media, yet the influence of voter decisions is unclear, there is some evidence that fake news has affected a small percentage of the electorate. Accordingly, in narrow electoral campaigns, governments are right to see fake news as a potential threat to democracy. The challenge for regulators is not over-regulating political speech in contradiction with our rights-based regimes. Central to the problem (and the solution) are digitally mediated platforms (DMPs), which now play a central role in an emerging eco-system of pseudo-governance, responsible for the cultivation of democracy and the constitutional freedoms of expression, information and assembly. Yet, at its heart, fake news is a deceptive communication. Part 1 examines the phenomena known as ‘fake news’ and its role in the landscape of fundamental rights of expression and media plurality. Part two of the paper offers a typology for determining deceptive communications. By breaking down the problem of fake news in this manner, one can better understand the scope and rationale for mapping regulatory solutions. Part three examines regulatory design focussing on extra-legal solutions to algorithmic processing to big data sets across DMPs. Part four examines the GDPR for any remedies to the problem of profiling and micro-targeting potential voters. Show less
This paper examines the various theoretical issues in regulation with a view to enhancing understanding of the regulation arena. Special emphasis has been placed on the banking industry. The paper... Show moreThis paper examines the various theoretical issues in regulation with a view to enhancing understanding of the regulation arena. Special emphasis has been placed on the banking industry. The paper shows how regulation serves different purposes for different interest groups on different occasions. It further argues that because of the ever shifting concept of 'public good', shifting individual and group interest and, perhaps the entwinement of individual and public good, neither the capture theory or the public good theory has yet fully explained the rationale for regulation. A clear understanding of the theoretical issues involved in regulation is therefore important if the forces that drive regulation are to be appreciated fully. Show less
