Managements of tea estates have often given preference to female labour over male labour, on the assumption that women were 'naturally' more suited to plucking tea. They also were thought to be... Show moreManagements of tea estates have often given preference to female labour over male labour, on the assumption that women were 'naturally' more suited to plucking tea. They also were thought to be cheaper and more docile than men. In this chapter the author focuses on women pluckers at the Tole Tea Estate, one of the estates in Cameroon owned by the Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC). The estate was constructed in 1954 and marked a turning point in the history of the CDC. It was the first estate in Cameroon to produce tea and the first estate to recruit predominantly female labour. The author first examines what categories of women tended to sell their labour power to the estate management and how this relates to customary patriarchal controls in the local communities. Then he highlights the intensification of managerial control and exploitation of women pluckers during the economic crisis that has affected the corporation since 1986-1987. Finally, he deals with the response of women pluckers to this severe crisis, showing that they have adopted various strategies to cope with the structural adjustment measures which have been planned and implemented by the management in close cooperation with the State-controlled trade union. What emerges from this study is that even during the economic crisis the management has failed to fully control the women pluckers in the labour process. Show less
This paper presents the findings of a field study carried out in two villages (Kyimo and Ngonga) in Rungwe and Kyela districts of Mbeya region in 1995. These districts, located in southwestern... Show moreThis paper presents the findings of a field study carried out in two villages (Kyimo and Ngonga) in Rungwe and Kyela districts of Mbeya region in 1995. These districts, located in southwestern Tanzania near to the Malawian and Zambian borders, have long been recognized for their great agricultural potential. Now, however, rural population densities have reached critical levels and villagers are experimenting with various non-agricultural activities alongside their agricultural work. The main objectives of the study were to examine the changing features of household control over resources such as land, labour and capital and to document the evolution of non-agricultural labour activities. Changing patterns of land and labour allocation between generations within rural households are explored in relation to these themes. Show less
In some areas in sub-Saharan Africa a rural proletariat has emerged, consisting mainly of labourers living and working on plantations and large mixed farms. Besides these fully proletarianized... Show moreIn some areas in sub-Saharan Africa a rural proletariat has emerged, consisting mainly of labourers living and working on plantations and large mixed farms. Besides these fully proletarianized estate workers, there is also a category of workers that can be labelled 'semi-proletarianized'. They live outside the agricultural estates, perform seasonal agricultural wage labour and still have control over some means of (re)production, usually a small piece of land. Based on a survey of large farms and households conducted in 1989 in Kenya's Trans Nzoia District, the present authors investigate whether differences in the degree of proletarianization of workers are reflected in differences in socioeconomic situation and living conditions (such as access to a latrine and improved drinking water, the number of household members per room, level of food consumption, nutritional condition). They also compare the situation of labourers with that of a group of non-labourers (households in which nobody had performed any agricultural wage labour in the year preceding the survey). They conclude that in terms of land and income as well as living conditions, labourers are disadvantaged when compared with non-labourers. With respect to the labourers, a higher degree of proletarianization coincides with a lower level of income but not necessarily with poorer living conditions. Show less
The few existing studies on the response of labour to the economic crisis and structural adjustment in African countries tend to focus on the (oppositional) relations between the State and central... Show moreThe few existing studies on the response of labour to the economic crisis and structural adjustment in African countries tend to focus on the (oppositional) relations between the State and central labour organizations. They largely ignore the response of workers and unions at the workplace. This article describes how workers and unions in the tea estates of Cameroon have dealt with the economic crisis and structural adjusment. It shows that the workers have adopted various strategies to cope with the structural adjustment measures planned and implemented by the management in close cooperation with the State-controlled unions. Two striking facts emerging from the analysis are that the majority of the estate workers have never completely abandoned their 'traditional' militancy, and that gender differences in the degree and modes of labour resistance tend to be slight. The data are derived from fieldwork carried out in 1991-1993 in the tea estates of the Cameroon Development Corporation, the largest agro-industrial parastatal in Cameroon. Show less
This book examines the living conditions of farm labourers in Trans Nzoia, one of Kenya's large-scale farming districts. Based on a study conducted in 1989 among large farmers and farm labourers,... Show moreThis book examines the living conditions of farm labourers in Trans Nzoia, one of Kenya's large-scale farming districts. Based on a study conducted in 1989 among large farmers and farm labourers, an overview is given of wages, provisions, the various sources of income, the inportance of social networks and the nutritional status of different groups of farm labourers. From the data presented it appears that the extent to which households depend on the large farm owners for their livelihood largely determines their economic position. But the interdependency has its costs. The more the labourers' households are tied to the land of the farm owner for both income and own food production, the more difficulties they face in satisfying even their basic needs. Show less
This report is the first in a series dealing with food supply and nutrition among labourers on large farms in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya. It examines two important aspects of the labourers' food... Show moreThis report is the first in a series dealing with food supply and nutrition among labourers on large farms in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya. It examines two important aspects of the labourers' food and nutritional situation, i.e. the incomes they earn from their labour on the large farms and the extra provisions they enjoy. Data presented in the report were obtained during a survey of a stratified sample of 46 large farms in the district which was carried out in 1989 and which focused on the labour conditions on large farms. Questions were asked about the number of labourers, the wages the farm owners paid them, and the provisions they received, such as housing, sanitary facilities, medical services, a piece of land. Three categories of labourers were distinguished: permanent labourers, casual labourers, and resident casuals. The study shows that labour in Trans Nzoia was used in an exploitative manner by quite a number of employers. On average, the wages for both permanent and casual labourers were below the legal minimum. The labourers were also in a bad position legally. Although many casual labourers worked on a very regular basis on one and the same farm, it was difficult for them to obtain the status of permanent labourer. Moreover, the labourers living on the farms (the permanent labourers and the resident casuals) were faced with restrictions on land use and work outside the farms Show less
This is the final report in a series of four regarding household resources and nutrition of farm labourers in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya. In the first three reports the findings of three surveys,... Show moreThis is the final report in a series of four regarding household resources and nutrition of farm labourers in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya. In the first three reports the findings of three surveys, carried out in 1989, were presented and discussed (Labour conditions on large farms in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya, by D. Foeken and L. Verstrate; Household resources and nutrition of labourers on large farms in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya, by D. Foeken and N. Tellegen; and Income generation of farm labourers in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya: rural employment and social networks, by N. Tellegen, L. Verstrate and D. Foeken). The present report offers summaries of each of the studies (Chapters 2, 3 and 4, repectively). The final chapter gives an overview of the main findings as well as policy recommendations formulated during a dissemination seminar held in Kitale in November 1992 Show less
This report, the second in a series of three dealing with food supply and nutrition among labourers on large farms in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya, examines the living conditions, household... Show moreThis report, the second in a series of three dealing with food supply and nutrition among labourers on large farms in Trans Nzoia District, Kenya, examines the living conditions, household resources, food consumption and nutritional situation in the labourers' households. The data were collected in June and July 1989 among some 300 households. Three types of labourers' households are distinguished, i.e. permanent labourers living on the large farms, casual labourers living on the farms ('resident casuals'), and casual labourers living outside the farms ('nonresident casuals'). For comparison a group of households was included in which nobody had performed any casual labour on a large farm during the year prior to the survey ('nonlabourers'). The results show that the households on the large farms have very little land at their disposal. In this respect, the situation of the nonresident casuals and in particular that of the nonlabourers is better. The households outside the farms are by far the wealthiest group. The average energy intake in the three groups of labourers' households is almost the same and 700 kcal lower than the estimated energy requirements. The nutritional condition of the children in the three groups of labourers' households is not very good. The study reveals that of the four study groups, the resident casuals can be considered the most vulnerable Show less
This study, carried out in 1989, is a support study for a larger survey of the nutritional situation in the households of labourers on large farms in Trans Nzoia, Kenya. Three categories were... Show moreThis study, carried out in 1989, is a support study for a larger survey of the nutritional situation in the households of labourers on large farms in Trans Nzoia, Kenya. Three categories were distinguished: permanent labourers, casual labourers living on the farm and casual labourers living off the farm. For comparison, a fourth group consisting of nonlabourers was added. The study covered two aspects of household income generation and food security, viz. rural employment and social networks. The study assessed the relative importance of various income-generating activities, such as farming, labour on large farms and nonagricultural employment, for the incomes of the different study groups. Related questions referred to the effects of seasonality on several activities, as well as the sexual division of rural employment and the constraints regarding specific income-generating activities. The study also examined the social networks of the labourers' households. Each household maintains relationships with relatives, nonresidential household members and nonrelatives. The study aimed to find out how these social networks contribute to household food security and income generation. Again, seasonal variations were taken into consideration, making it possible to assess whether differences in agricultural cycles between Trans Nzoia and the areas of origin of those studied, the majority of whom are immigrants, may help to solve food shortages. Show less
