This thesis describes the development and evaluation of a new laboratory tool to improve early kidney injury diagnosis. In the first part, we define the unmet clinical needs in the clinical care... Show moreThis thesis describes the development and evaluation of a new laboratory tool to improve early kidney injury diagnosis. In the first part, we define the unmet clinical needs in the clinical care pathways in kidney injury, by a questionnaire and s literature review to summarize current state-of-the-art diagnostics. The second part of this thesis comprises the analytical phase of test development. Liquid-chromatography (LC) coupled to tandem MS was chosen as analytical platform for protein-based kidney injury biomarker quantitation from human urine specimens. The third part of this thesis covers aspects of the postanalytical phase of medical test development, which included the establishment of reference intervals and clinical observational cohort studies. Elevated levels of the studied kidney injury biomarkers, and their combined signatures, were associated with acute kidney injury induced by ischemia-reperfusion injury after kidney transplantation, but not with stable chronic kidney disease. In a general perspective, this thesis highlights the role of quantitative protein mass spectrometry for biomarker translation from research towards the clinical laboratory. Show less
Metabolomics, proteomics, and genomics analyses provide profound insight into human biology and disease pathophysiology. In this thesis, we explored the methodological challenges facing these OMICs... Show moreMetabolomics, proteomics, and genomics analyses provide profound insight into human biology and disease pathophysiology. In this thesis, we explored the methodological challenges facing these OMICs technologies and illustrated their applications in epidemiological studies. In part one, we focused on some of the methodological challenges facing OMICs research. These challenges included handling missing data in metabolomics, measurement agreement between high throughput proteomic measurements with standard clinical measurements, and challenges in developing prediction models using metabolomic data. The second part of this thesis addressed various epidemiological research questions by utilizing genomic data and metabolomics measurements (Metabolon and Nightingale platforms) and using advanced data analysis methods. These studies provided important insights into the associations between metabolites and hepatic triglyceride content, the associations of between the size of cytosine-adenine-guanine nucleotide repeats in the huntingtin gene with metabolomic profile, and the associations of the man-made per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) with metabolite levels. Show less
This thesis highlights, firstly, the importance of early CRC detection by presenting results of a CRC diagnostic proteomic biomarker signature with high discriminative power. Secondly, a strong... Show moreThis thesis highlights, firstly, the importance of early CRC detection by presenting results of a CRC diagnostic proteomic biomarker signature with high discriminative power. Secondly, a strong robust, independent prognostic tumor stroma ratio (TSR) biomarker, which confirms to be of important clinical value. The TSR has the ability to stratify colon cancer patients according to their prognostic outcome in a highly reproducible and low-cost manner. It has shown to link patients with a high intra tumor stromal content and a worse prognosis. Literature shows a wealth of evidence that supports this prognostic value in CRC as well as in other cancers. This PhD research therefore concludes that it should be implemented in the official guidelines of the TNM classification to improve stratification for CRC patients in daily routine pathological evaluation. The prospective, international, multicentre UNITED study will hopefully overcome the last hurdle for this clinical implementation. Lastly, this thesis offers more insight in the elusiveness of the tumor microenvironment and stromatogenesis that contributes to the aggressiveness of some CRC tumors. The biological differences, interconnections and changes in the microenvironment presented give multiple leads for further research and new personalized treatment possibilities. Show less
Sampadi, B.; Mullenders, L.H.F.; Vrieling, H. 2022
Background: Although cancer risk is assumed to be linear with ionizing radiation (IR) dose, it is unclear to what extent low doses (LD) of IR from medical and occupational exposures pose a cancer... Show moreBackground: Although cancer risk is assumed to be linear with ionizing radiation (IR) dose, it is unclear to what extent low doses (LD) of IR from medical and occupational exposures pose a cancer risk for humans. Improved mechanistic understanding of the signaling responses to LD may help to clarify this uncertainty. Here, we per -formed quantitative mass spectrometry-based proteomics and phosphoproteomics experiments, using mouse embryonic stem cells, at 0.5 h and 4 h after exposure to LD (0.1 Gy) and high doses (HD; 1 Gy) of IR. Results: The proteome remained relatively stable (29; 0.5% proteins responded), whereas the phosphoproteome changed dynamically (819; 7% phosphosites changed) upon irradiation. Dose-dependent alterations of 25 IR-responsive proteins were identified, with only four in common between LD and HD. Mitochondrial metabolic proteins and pathways responded to LD, whereas transporter proteins and mitochondrial uncoupling pathways responded to HD. Congruently, mitochondrial respiration increased after LD exposure but decreased after HD exposure. While the bulk of the phosphoproteome response to LD (76%) occurred already at 0.5 h, an equivalent proportion of the phosphosites responded to HD at both time points. Motif, kinome/phosphatome, kinase-substrate, and pathway analyses revealed a robust DNA damage response (DDR) activation after HD exposure but not after LD exposure. Instead, LD-irradiation induced (de)phosphorylation of kinases, kinase-substrates and phosphatases that predominantly respond to reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Conclusion: Our analyses identify discrete global proteome and phosphoproteome responses after LD and HD, uncovering novel proteins and protein (de)phosphorylation events involved in the dose-dependent ionizing ra-diation responses. Show less
Background: Many patients who are diagnosed with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) suffer from venous thromboembolic complications despite the use of stringent anticoagulant prophylaxis. Studies... Show moreBackground: Many patients who are diagnosed with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) suffer from venous thromboembolic complications despite the use of stringent anticoagulant prophylaxis. Studies on the exact mechanism(s) underlying thrombosis in COVID-19 are limited as animal models commonly used to study venous thrombosis pathophysiology (i.e. rats and mice) are naturally not susceptible to Severe Acute Respiratory Syn-drome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Ferrets are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, successfully used to study virus transmission, and have been previously used to study activation of coagulation and thrombosis during influenza virus infection.Objectives: This study aimed to explore the use of (heat-inactivated) plasma and lung material from SARS-CoV-2-inoculated ferrets studying COVID-19-associated changes in coagulation and thrombosis. Material and methods: Histology and longitudinal plasma profiling using mass spectrometry-based proteomics approach was performed.Results: Lungs of ferrets inoculated intranasally with SARS-CoV-2 demonstrated alveolar septa that were mildly expanded by macrophages, and diffuse interstitial histiocytic pneumonia. However, no macroscopical or microscopical evidence of vascular thrombosis in the lungs of SARS-CoV-2-inoculated ferrets was found. Lon-gitudinal plasma profiling revealed minor differences in plasma protein profiles in SARS-CoV-2-inoculated ferrets up to 2 weeks post-infection. The majority of plasma coagulation factors were stable and demonstrated a low coefficient of variation.Conclusions: We conclude that while ferrets are an essential and well-suited animal model to study SARS-CoV-2 transmission, their use to study SARS-CoV-2-related changes relevant to thrombotic disease is limited. Show less
BACKGROUND CONTEXT: Patients with modic changes (MC) form a distinct clinical subset with reports of higher intensity of pain, poor clinical and surgical outcomes and higher incidence of recurrence... Show moreBACKGROUND CONTEXT: Patients with modic changes (MC) form a distinct clinical subset with reports of higher intensity of pain, poor clinical and surgical outcomes and higher incidence of recurrence. MC also is an independent risk factor for increased post-operative surgical site infection.PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate the biological changes at molecular level, in discs with MCs. We also aim to identify biological biomarkers and potential targets for molecular therapy.STUDY DESIGN: Experimental analysisMATERIALS AND METHODS: Nucleus pulposus (NP) from 24 patients undergoing microdiscectomy for disc herniation [14 discs with MC and 10 without modic changes (NMC)] were procured. The overall expression of proteins, biological processes, protein-protein and metabolite interactions were analysed and compared. Host defense response proteins (HDRPs) and immunological pathways activated in patients with MC were documented and analysed.RESULTS: Label-free proteomic approach with stringent filters revealed a total of 208 proteins in MC and 193 in NMC groups. 45 proteins were specific to MC; 30 to NMC and 163 common to both. Downregulated proteins in MC belonged to components of extracellular matrix such as collagens (COL-6A1, 6A2, 6A3, 11A1, 12A1, and 20A1), and proteoglycans (versican (VCAN), and biglycan (BGN)). Inflammatory molecules [plasminogen (PLG), angiogenin (ANG), fibroblast growth factor-binding protein 2 (FGFBP2), tetranectin (CLEC3B), cartilage acidic protein 1 (CRTAC1), kininogen (KNG-1), chitinase-3-like protein 2 (CHI3L2), and ferritin (FTL) were expressed only in the MC group. The significantly altered pathways in MC included Fc Fragment of IgG Receptor IIIa (FCGR3A)-mediated phagocytosis, regulation of Toll-like receptors (TLR) by endogenous ligand, neutrophil and platelet degranulation.50 HDRPs were identified in the study, 14 of which were specific to MC and included acute phase reactants, antimicrobial peptides, complement cascade proteins, inflammatory molecule and stress response proteins. Metabolite-protein interaction analysis revealed a significant interaction between 19 proteins, specifically involving ubiquitin mediating proteasome degradative pathway and an association with the metabolite-glutamic acid in the MC group. Accumulation of glutamic acid in MC discs was confirmed by quantitative amino acid analysis using High-performance liquid chromatography.CONCLUSION: Our study confirms that MC represents an intense inflammatory status and activation of host defense response and immunological pathways. Downstream effects leading to ubiquitin mediated proteasomal degradation of ECM proteins and the resulting metabolites such as glutamic acid could cause excessive pain and needs further investigation.CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: We have documented the expression of inflammatory molecules, immune mechanisms and host defense response proteins which throw molecular insights into the pathological mechanisms of MC. Further, ubiquitin mediated proteasomal degradation and accumulation of glutamate in discs with MC might serve as targets for molecular therapy. (C) 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Show less
Genotoxic stressors may induce various types of DNA damage triggering the activation of the DNA damage response. However, the dose-dependency and the drug compound-specificity of the activated... Show moreGenotoxic stressors may induce various types of DNA damage triggering the activation of the DNA damage response. However, the dose-dependency and the drug compound-specificity of the activated responses are unclear. Here, I first investigated the phospho-signalling responses induced by four chemical stressors with distinct modes of action and uncovered that, at equitoxic doses, even two ‘similar’ DNA damaging agents induced discrete and complex phosphorylation signalling cascades. Next, I investigated the ionising radiation (IR) dose-dependent responses using multi-omics and systems analyses to investigate the molecular and cellular responses to low and high doses of IR. I uncovered that the IR induced molecular responses have different dose-effect relationships. A minor part of the phosphorylation signalling and transcription involved in the DSB-related responses displayed a linear dose-effect relationship. Contrastingly, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production-related molecular and cellular responses and DNA replication stress revealed complex dose-response relationships. LD uniquely activates ROS-related responses at multiple molecular levels, including proteome, phosphoproteome, nascent transcriptome and metabolome. Further work will be required to determine how these differences in molecular and cellular responses observed over hours after low and high doses impact the risk for cancer development that occurs over months and years. Show less
Purpose The aim of this observational radiographic and proteomic study is to explore the influence of both Modic change (MC) and endplate avulsion (EPA) on the inflammation profile of herniated... Show morePurpose The aim of this observational radiographic and proteomic study is to explore the influence of both Modic change (MC) and endplate avulsion (EPA) on the inflammation profile of herniated discs using a proteomic and bioinformatics approach. Methods Fifteen nucleus pulposus (NP) harvested from surgery underwent LC-MS/MC analysis, the proteome was subsequently scanned for inflammatory pathways using a bioinformatics approach. All proteins that were identified in inflammatory pathways and Gene Ontology and present in > 7 samples were integrated in a multiple regression analysis with MC and EPA as predictors. Significant proteins were imputed in an interaction and pathway analysis. Results Compared to annulus fibrosus tear (AFT), six proteins were significantly altered in EPA: catalase, Fibrinogen beta chain, protein disulfide-isomerase, pigment epithelium-derived factor, osteoprotegerin and lower expression of antithrombin-III, all of which corresponded to an upregulation of pathways involved in coagulation and detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, the presence of MC resulted in a significant alteration of nine proteins compared to patients without MC. Patients with MC showed a significantly higher expression of clusterin and lumican, and lower expression of catalase, complement factor B, Fibrinogen beta chain, protein disulfide-isomerase, periostin, Alpha-1-antitrypsin and pigment epithelium-derived factor. Together these altered protein expressions resulted in a downregulation of pathways involved in detoxification of ROS, complement system and immune system. Results were verified by Immunohistochemistry with CD68 cell counts. Conclusion Both EPA and MC status significantly influence disc inflammation. The beneficial inflammatory signature of EPA illustrates that endplate pathology does not necessarily have to worsen the outcome, but the pathological inflammatory state is dependent on the presence of MC. Show less
In the present study, we assessed if different legacy and novel molecular analyses approaches can detect and trace prohibited bovine material in insects reared to produce processed animal protein ... Show moreIn the present study, we assessed if different legacy and novel molecular analyses approaches can detect and trace prohibited bovine material in insects reared to produce processed animal protein (PAP). Newly hatched black soldier fly (BSF) larvae were fed one of the four diets for seven days; a control feeding medium (Ctl), control feed spiked with bovine hemoglobin powder (BvHb) at 1% (wet weight, w/w) (BvHb 1%, w/w), 5% (BvHb 5%, w/w) and 10% (BvHb 10%, w/w). Another dietary group of BSF larvae, namely *BvHb 10%, was first grown on BvHb 10% (w/w), and after seven days separated from the residual material and placed in another container with control diet for seven additional days. Presence of ruminant material in insect feed and in BSF larvae was assessed in five different laboratories using (i) real time-PCR analysis, (ii) multi-target ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), (iii) protein-centric immunoaffinity-LC-MS/MS, (iv) peptide-centric immunoaffinity-LC-MS/MS, (v) tandem mass spectral library matching (SLM), and (vi) compound specific amino acid analysis (CSIA). All methods investigated detected ruminant DNA or BvHb in specific insect feed media and in BSF larvae, respectively. However, each method assessed, displayed distinct shortcomings, which precluded detection of prohibited material versus non prohibited ruminant material in some instances. Taken together, these findings indicate that detection of prohibited material in the insect-PAP feed chain requires a tiered combined use of complementary molecular analysis approaches. We therefore advocate the use of a combined multi-tier molecular analysis suite for the detection, differentiation and tracing of prohibited material in insect-PAP based feed chains and endorse ongoing efforts to extend the currently available battery of PAP detection approaches with MS based techniques and possibly delta C-13(AA) fingerprinting. Show less
Raafs, A.; Verdonschot, J.; Ferreira, J.P.; Wang, P.; Collier, T.; Henkens, M.; ... ; Heymans, S. 2021
Aims Heart failure (HF) is common in both men and women, yet disease pathophysiology, presentation, and progression differ between sexes. Studies addressing whether biomarkers predict new onset HF... Show moreAims Heart failure (HF) is common in both men and women, yet disease pathophysiology, presentation, and progression differ between sexes. Studies addressing whether biomarkers predict new onset HF sex-specifically are scarce. This study therefore aims to test the sex-specificity of 252 protein biomarkers for new-onset HF.Methods and results A matched case-control design in patients selected from cohorts within the HOMAGE consortium was used. Cases (new-onset HF, n = 562) and controls (n = 780) were matched for cohort (PREDICTOR, HEALTH-ABC, & PROSPER), follow-up time (defined as time from entry to incident HF), and age. Incident HF was defined as first hospitalization for HF. Targeted plasma proteins (n = 252) were measured using Proximity Extension Assay technology from O-link. To look for sex differences for new onset HF, we adjusted for cohort, age, and baseline clinical parameters. At baseline, women had a biomarker profile reflecting activated metabolism and immune responses. However, none of the biomarkers had a significant interaction with sex in predicting new onset HF, but four biomarkers had a trend towards sex-specificity (P < 0.013). E-selectin and interleukin 1 receptor antagonist were more female-specific, whereas IL17A and CHIT1 tended to be male sex-specific for incident HF.Conclusions The majority of biomarkers associated with incident HF did not significantly differ between women and men, despite clear differences in biomarkers at baseline. Show less
Background: Proteomics is expected to provide novel insights in the underlying pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus. In the present study, we aimed to identify and biochemically characterize... Show moreBackground: Proteomics is expected to provide novel insights in the underlying pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus. In the present study, we aimed to identify and biochemically characterize proteins associated with diabetes mellitus in a Qatari population.Methods: In a diabetes case-control study (175 cases, 164 controls; Arab, South Asian and Philippine ethnicities), we conducted a discovery study to screen 1141 blood protein levels for associations with diabetes mellitus. Additional analyses were done in controls in relation to Hb1Ac, and biochemical characterization of the main findings was performed with metabolomics (501 metabolites). We performed two-sample Mendelian Randomization to provide evidence of potential causality using data from European descent of the DIAGRAM consortium (74,124 cases of diabetes mellitus and 824,006 controls) for the identified proteins for T2D and Hb1Ac.Results: After accounting for multiple testing, 30 protein levels were different (p-values < 8.6e(-5)) between cases and controls. Of these, a higher Hb1Ac in controls was associated with a lower IGFBP-2 level (p-value=4.1e(-6)). IGFBP-2 protein level was found lower among cases compared with controls across all ethnicities. In controls, IGFBP-2 was associated with 21 metabolite levels, but specifically connected to the metabolite citrulline in network analyses. We observed no evidence, however, that the association between IGFBP-2 and diabetes mellitus was causal.Conclusions: We specifically identified IGFBP-2 to be associated with diabetes mellitus, although with no evidence for causality, which was specifically connected to citrulline metabolism. Show less
Hiller, M.; Geissler, M.; Janssen, G.; Veelen, P. van; Aartsma-Rus, A.; Spitali, P. 2020
Muscle formation is a coordinated process driven by extensive gene expression changes where single cells fuse together to form multinucleated muscle fibers. Newly synthesized mRNAs are then... Show moreMuscle formation is a coordinated process driven by extensive gene expression changes where single cells fuse together to form multinucleated muscle fibers. Newly synthesized mRNAs are then regulated by RNA binding proteins (RBPs), affecting post-transcriptional transcript metabolism. Here, we determined how large-scale gene expression changes affect the catalog of RBPs by studying proliferating and differentiated muscle cells in healthy and dystrophic conditions. Transcriptomic analysis showed that the expression of more than 7000 genes was affected during myogenesis. We identified 769 RBPs, of which 294 were muscle-specific and 49 were uniquely shared with cardiomyocytes. A subset of 32 RBPs (half of which were muscle-specific) was found to be preferentially associated with target mRNAs in either myoblasts (MBs) or myotubes (MTs). A large proportion of catalytic proteins were bound to mRNAs even though they lack classical RNA binding domains. Finally, we showed how the identification of cell-specific RBPs enabled the identification of biomarkers that can separate healthy individuals from dystrophic patients. Our data show how interactome data can shed light on new basic RNA biology as well as provide cell-specific data that can be used for diagnostic purposes. Show less
The aim of this thesis is to identify emerging risk factors for VTE. To achieve this goal, we describe the supposedly causal role of statin and glucocorticoid use (i.e. two drugs that can influence... Show moreThe aim of this thesis is to identify emerging risk factors for VTE. To achieve this goal, we describe the supposedly causal role of statin and glucocorticoid use (i.e. two drugs that can influence inflammation) with changes in hemostasis and VTE risk. Systemic glucocorticoid use increases the relative risk of first VTE by more than three-fold and confers an 5% absolute risk of recurrent VTE per year. On the other hand, rosuvastatin use may reduce the risk of first VTE by 40%. Although the mechanisms behind this association are not fully elucidated, this thesis shows that rosuvastatin is capable of decreasing the thrombin generation potential by 10% in patients with a prior VTE. This thesis has shown that both statins and systemic glucocorticoids can affect the risk of VTE, improving the knowledge on the influence of these two commonly prescribed drugs on VTE pathophysiology. These findings have the potential to further refine the assessment of VTE risk since they highlight that the use of these drugs should be considered when evaluating the risk of VTE. Finally, this thesis provides insight into new therapeutic approaches since the results underscore that treatment strategies on VTE prevention in patients already taken statins, which may be sufficient for VTE prevention, are lacking. Treatment strategies to prevent glucocorticoid-associated VTE are also needed. Show less
Smith, A.; Iablokov, V.; Mazza, M.; Guarnerio, S.; Denti, V.; Ivanova, M.; ... ; Magni, F. 2020
Introduction: Diabetic nephropathy (DN) and hypertensive nephrosclerosis (HN) represent the most common causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and many patients progress to -end-stage renal disease... Show moreIntroduction: Diabetic nephropathy (DN) and hypertensive nephrosclerosis (HN) represent the most common causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and many patients progress to -end-stage renal disease. Patients are treated primarily through the management of cardiovas-cular risk factors and hypertension; however patients with HN have a more favorable outcome. A noninvasive clinical approach to separate these two entities, especially in hypertensive patients who also have diabetes, would allow for targeted treatment and more appropriate resource allocation to those patients at the highest risk of CKD progression. Meth-ods: In this preliminary study, high-spatial-resolution matrix-assisted laser desorption/ion-ization (MALDI) mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) was integrated with high-mass accuracy MALDI-FTICR-MS and nLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis in order to detect tissue proteins within kidney biopsies to discriminate cases of DN (n = 9) from cases of HN (n = 9). Results: Differences in the tryptic peptide profiles of the 2 groups could clearly be detected, with these becoming even more evident in the more severe histological classes, even if this was not evident with routine histology. In particular, 4 putative proteins were detected and had a higher signal intensity within regions of DN tissue with extensive sclerosis or fibrosis. Among these, 2 proteins (PGRMC1 and CO3) had a signal intensity that increased at the latter stages of the disease and may be associated with progression. Discussion/Conclusion: This preliminary study represents a valuable starting point for a future study employing a larger cohort of patients to develop sensitive and specific protein biomarkers that could reliably differentiate between diabetic and hypertensive causes of CKD to allow for improved diagnosis, fewer biopsy procedures, and refined treatment approaches for clinicians. Show less
The thesis describes the development of a number of novel mass spectrometric methods for the protein analysis of Gram-negative bacteria. These applications are developed with the aim of finding new... Show moreThe thesis describes the development of a number of novel mass spectrometric methods for the protein analysis of Gram-negative bacteria. These applications are developed with the aim of finding new and improved diagnostic routes for the typing of bacteria and their antibiotic resistance. The research is application driven and the focus is on utilizing high-end mass spectrometric instrumentation in diagnostic clinical microbiology, in a complimentary nature to already established techniques. Show less
The work presented in this thesis describes the improvement and application of on-tissue chemistry for in-situ biomolecular analysis using matrix assisted-laser desorption/ionization mass... Show moreThe work presented in this thesis describes the improvement and application of on-tissue chemistry for in-situ biomolecular analysis using matrix assisted-laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI). We have proposed new methodologies, applying on-tissue (enzymatic) chemistry, to increase the molecular information obtained in a MALDI-MSI analysis. We have also developed an automated histology-guided MSI platform, based on state-of-the-art image processing tools, to facilitate high mass and spatial resolution MALDI-MSI while maintaining reasonable data loads and acquisition times. We have shown the importance of these methods in a clinical biomarker discovery study on myxoid liposarcoma tissues. Show less
Parasitic helminths are important organisms to study because their infections have both adverse and beneficial effects on the human host. Helminth infections are considered a burden, as these... Show moreParasitic helminths are important organisms to study because their infections have both adverse and beneficial effects on the human host. Helminth infections are considered a burden, as these infections cause significant morbidity in a large proportion worldwide. However, helminth infections, by means of their ability to modify host immune responses can also provide protection against inflammatory diseases (inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes, and asthma). It is important to better understand the underlying mechanisms of these Yin (positive) and Yang (negative) consequences of helminth infections. The general objective of this thesis is to track helminths at different levels. On the one hand to improve the detection of helminth infections, essential for the studying helminths and the interaction with their human host. Moreover, a more sensitive diagnostics is instrumental for monitoring the distribution of helminth infections and to evaluate the helminth infections elimination program. On the other hand, to understand the mechanistic insights of the interplay between helminths and the host immune system results in priming of Th2 and regulatory T cell responses. This could contribute to the identification of targeted pathways to manipulate immune responses, as part of developing therapeutics to treat inflammatory disorders characterized by deregulated Th2 and/or Treg responses. Show less
