Creating an optimal start during the first 1,000 days of children is an important focus for researchers and policy makers. Parents can positively influence child development through sensitive... Show moreCreating an optimal start during the first 1,000 days of children is an important focus for researchers and policy makers. Parents can positively influence child development through sensitive parenting, which is the ability to understand and promptly and adequately respond to a child’s signals. This thesis provides insight in the development of sensitive parenting from infancy to toddlerhood in primiparous mothers and fathers through longitudinal data from the Netherlands, United Kingdom, and United States. The results demonstrate that fathers and mothers respond more sensitively to their baby in more ecologically valid contexts, i.e. during situations more representative of their daily reality, than in less ecologically valid contexts. Therefore, we recommend to take context into account when parenting skills are studied and evaluated. Next, we made a first step towards clarity on the way parents reflect on the parent-child relationship during the transition to parenthood and in relation to parental sensitivity. We found weak evidence for the theorized link between this reflection and parental sensitivity. Finally, we found that mothers and fathers are equally sensitive across the first two years, and sensitivity levels during this period increase in both parents, indicating that mothers and fathers actually do become better in sensitive parenting. Show less
Because aggressive behavior during early childhood has been related to negative developmental outcomes, a further understanding of the underlying mechanisms of aggression during the first years of... Show moreBecause aggressive behavior during early childhood has been related to negative developmental outcomes, a further understanding of the underlying mechanisms of aggression during the first years of life is essential. Although the factors prenatal risk, parenting behavior, temperament and cognitive functions have consistently been related to externalizing behavior during preschool and school age, research focusing on their interplay in relation to aggressive behavior earlier in life is scarce. The aim of the current dissertation was to gain more insight into these associations during infancy and toddlerhood. Our studies indicated that impairments in children’s early cognitive regulation abilities play a role in the development of aggressive behavior. It can also be concluded that both adverse pre- and postnatal environmental influences have an impact on child aggression: higher prenatal risk and adverse parenting behavior were directly or indirectly (via poor cognitive functioning) related to higher levels of aggression. In addition, it was found that poor cognitive skills increased the risk of aggression in case of high prenatal risk or a highly reactive temperament during early development. These results suggest that early intervention programs to prevent aggression should focus on prenatal risk, parenting behavior and cognitive development during the first years of life. Show less
Parent-to-child transmission of information processing biases to threat is a potential causal mechanism in the family aggregation of anxiety symptoms and traits. This study is the first to... Show moreParent-to-child transmission of information processing biases to threat is a potential causal mechanism in the family aggregation of anxiety symptoms and traits. This study is the first to investigate the link between infants' and parents' attention bias to dynamic threat-relevant (versus happy) emotional expressions. Moreover, the associations between infant attention and anxiety dispositions in infants and parents were explored. Using a cross-sectional design, we tested 211 infants in three age groups: 5-to-7-month-olds (n = 71), 11-to-13-month-olds (n = 73), and 17-to-19-month-olds (n = 67), and 216 parents (153 mothers). Infant and parental dwell times to angry and fearful versus happy facial expressions were measured via eye-tracking. The parents also reported on their anxiety and stress. Ratings of infant temperamental fear and distress were averaged across both parents. Parents and infants tended to show an attention bias for fearful faces with marginally longer dwell times to fearful versus happy faces. Parents dwelled longer on angry versus happy faces, whereas infants showed an avoidant pattern with longer dwell times to happy versus angry expressions. There was a significant positive association between infant and parent attention to emotional expressions. Parental anxiety dispositions were not related to their own or their infant's attention bias. No significant link emerged between infants' temperament and attention bias. We conclude that an association between parental and infant attention may already be evident in the early years of life, whereas a link between anxiety dispositions and attention biases may not hold in community samples. Show less
The development of social-cognitive abilities in infancy is subject to an intricate interaction between maturation of neural systems and environmental input. We investigated the role of infants’... Show moreThe development of social-cognitive abilities in infancy is subject to an intricate interaction between maturation of neural systems and environmental input. We investigated the role of infants’ attachment relationship quality in shaping infants’ neural responses to observed social interactions. One-hundred thirty 10-month-old infants participated in an EEG session while they watched animations involving a distressing separation event that ended with either comforting or ignoring behavior. Frontal asymmetry (FA) in the alpha range - which is indicative of approach-withdrawal tendencies - was measured with EEG. Attachment quality was assessed using the Strange Situation procedure at 12 months. Overall, infants with disorganized attachment showed a lack of right-sided – withdrawal related – FA compared to secure and insecure infants. Furthermore, only avoidant infants exhibited reduced right-sided FA responses following the separation. Contrary to our expectations, the type of response (comforting vs. ignoring) did not elicit differences in FA patterns, and attachment quality did not moderate the effects of the type of response on frontal asymmetry. Implications for research on attachment-related biases in social information processing and on the neural underpinnings of prosocial behaviors are discussed. Show less
Emotional mimicry, the tendency to automatically and spontaneously reproduce others’ facial expressions, characterizes human social interactions from infancy onwards. Yet, little is known about the... Show moreEmotional mimicry, the tendency to automatically and spontaneously reproduce others’ facial expressions, characterizes human social interactions from infancy onwards. Yet, little is known about the factors modulating its development in the first year of life. This study investigated infant emotional mimicry and its association with parent emotional mimicry, parent-infant mutual attention, and parent dispositional affective empathy. One hundred and seventeen parent-infant dyads (51 six-month-olds, 66 twelve-month-olds) were observed during video presentation of strangers’ happy, sad, angry, and fearful faces. Infant and parent emotional mimicry (i.e., facial expressions valence-congruent to the video) and their mutual attention (i.e., simultaneous gaze at one another) were systematically coded second-by-second. Parent empathy was assessed via self-report. Path models indicated that infant mimicry of happy stimuli was positively and independently associated with parent mimicry and affective empathy, while infant mimicry of sad stimuli was related to longer parent-infant mutual attention. Findings provide new insights into infants’ and parents’ coordination of mimicry and attention during triadic contexts of interactions, endorsing the social-affiliative function of mimicry already present in infancy: emotional mimicry occurs as an automatic parent-infant shared behavior and early manifestation of empathy only when strangers’ emotional displays are positive, and thus perceived as affiliative. Show less
van't Hof, M.; Ester, W.A.; Berckelaer-Onnes, I. van; Hillegers, M.H.J.; Hoek, H.W.; Jansen, P.W. 2021
Eating problems are common among children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), but it is unknown to what extent infant eating behavior is associated with later autistic traits. As eating behavior... Show moreEating problems are common among children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), but it is unknown to what extent infant eating behavior is associated with later autistic traits. As eating behavior is currently not included in ASD screening instruments, it is important to evaluate whether infant eating behavior predicts later autistic traits and might therefore be used to enhance the early detection of ASD. We investigated the association of breast-feeding and eating behavior during infancy with later autistic traits in the population-based Generation R cohort. We included 3546 mother-child dyads with maternal reports on feeding and eating at age two months and autistic traits at six years. Eating behavior was assessed with seven items on specific eating habits and the Social Responsiveness Scale was used to evaluate autistic traits. Covariates included child sex, and maternal psychopathology and autistic traits. Linear regression analyses showed that being formula fed at two months was associated with a higher autistic trait score at six years (adjusted B = 0.07; 95% CI: 0.00-0.14). Children who were drinking only small quantities (adjusted B = 0.17, 95% CI: 0.04-0.30) and were hungry/not satisfied (adjusted B = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.08-0.39) at age two months also had a higher autistic traits score at age six years. We found no interactions with sex or breastfeeding. This study shows that eating behavior during infancy is related with autistic traits in childhood. Although the associations were fairly small, these findings suggest that early-life eating problems might be relevant for early detection of ASD and a potential addition to ASD-specific screening instruments. Show less
Background: A considerable body of evidence accumulated especially during the last decade, demonstrating that early nutrition and lifestyle have long-term effects on later health and disease (... Show moreBackground: A considerable body of evidence accumulated especially during the last decade, demonstrating that early nutrition and lifestyle have long-term effects on later health and disease ("developmental or metabolic programming"). Methods: Researchers involved in the European Union funded international EarlyNutrition research project consolidated the scientific evidence base and existing recommendations to formulate consensus recommendations on nutrition and lifestyle before and during pregnancy, during infancy and early childhood that take long-term health impact into account. Systematic reviews were performed on published dietary guidelines, standards and recommendations, with special attention to long-term health consequences. In addition, systematic reviews of published systematic reviews on nutritional interventions or exposures in pregnancy and in infants and young children aged up to 3 years that describe effects on subsequent overweight, obesity and body composition were performed. Experts developed consensus recommendations incorporating the wide-ranging expertise from additional 33 stakeholders. Findings: Most current recommendations for pregnant women, particularly obese women, and for young children do not take long-term health consequences of early nutrition into account, although the available evidence for relevant consequences of lifestyle, diet and growth patterns in early life on later health and disease risk is strong. Interpretation: We present updated recommendations for optimized nutrition before and during pregnancy, during lactation, infancy and toddlerhood, with special reference to later health outcomes. These recommendations are developed for affluent populations, such as women and children in Europe, and should contribute to the primary prevention of obesity and associated non-communicable diseases. (c) 2019 S. Karger AG, Basel Show less
Suurland, J.; Heijden, K.B. van der; Huijbregts, S.C.J.; Goozen, S.H.M. van; Swaab, H. 2017
Nonreciprocal action of the parasympathetic (PNS) and sympathetic (SNS) nervous systems, increases susceptibility to emotional and behavioral problems in children exposed to adversity. Little is... Show moreNonreciprocal action of the parasympathetic (PNS) and sympathetic (SNS) nervous systems, increases susceptibility to emotional and behavioral problems in children exposed to adversity. Little is known about the PNS and SNS in interaction with early adversity during infancy. Yet this is when the physiological systems involved in emotion regulation are emerging and presumably most responsive to environmental influences. We examined whether parasympathetic respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and sympathetic pre-ejection period (PEP) response and recovery at six months, moderate the association between cumulative prenatal risk and physical aggression at 20 months (N = 113). Prenatal risk predicted physical aggression, but only in infants exhibiting coactivation of PNS and SNS (i.e., increase in RSA and decrease in PEP) in response to stress. These findings indicate that coactivation of the PNS and SNS in combination with prenatal risk is a biological marker for the development of aggression. Show less
Kinderen die op jonge leeftijd een hoge mate van agressief gedrag laten zien hebben een verhoogd risico op problemen later in de ontwikkeling. Blootstelling aan risicofactoren tijdens de prenatale... Show moreKinderen die op jonge leeftijd een hoge mate van agressief gedrag laten zien hebben een verhoogd risico op problemen later in de ontwikkeling. Blootstelling aan risicofactoren tijdens de prenatale periode is in verband gebracht met de ontwikkeling van agressief gedrag. Echter, de mate waarin deze risicofactoren de ontwikkeling van het kind beïnvloeden hangt deels af van de eigenschappen van het individuele kind, waaronder het vermogen tot zelfregulatie. In dit proefschrift is onderzocht hoe zelfregulatie, gemeten op fysiologisch, emotioneel en cognitief niveau, en prenatale risicofactoren de kwetsbaarheid voor agressief gedrag in de vroege kinderleeftijd vergroten en in hoeverre prenatale risicofactoren samenhangen met vroege zelfregulatie. Geconcludeerd kan worden dat 1) kinderen in de voorschoolse leeftijd met een verhoogde mate van agressief gedrag gekenmerkt worden door een specifieke combinatie van tekorten in zelfregulatie op emotioneel en cognitief niveau, 2) de impact van prenatale risicofactoren op de ontwikkeling van fysieke agressie in de peuterleeftijd afhankelijk is van fysiologische zelfregulatie in de babytijd, en 3) blootstelling aan prenatale risicofactoren voorspellend is voor fysiologische zelfregulatie in de babytijd. Deze bevindingen suggereren dat (preventieve) interventieprogramma’s ter voorkoming van agressief gedrag zich moeten richten op zowel beïnvloeden van prenatale omstandigheden als zelfregulatie in de vroege kindertijd. Show less
Het terugdringen van agressie is in de afgelopen jaren in toenemende mate een maatschappelijke prioriteit geworden. Agressie in de vroege kindertijd vergroot de kans op latere agressieproblemen en... Show moreHet terugdringen van agressie is in de afgelopen jaren in toenemende mate een maatschappelijke prioriteit geworden. Agressie in de vroege kindertijd vergroot de kans op latere agressieproblemen en antisociaal gedrag. In de peutertijd is er al een groep hoog-agressieve kinderen te identificeren die later in de ontwikkeling meer persistente, ernstigere vormen van agressie laat zien. Belangrijk is om veranderbare factoren te identificeren die samenhangen met het ontstaan en/of de instandhouding van het probleemgedrag. Het ouderlijk reflectief functioneren (RF) is in dat kader een interessant concept, aangezien deze vaardigheid te trainen is. In dit proefschrift is de invloed van het RF-vermogen van moeder op de ontwikkeling van (voorlopers van) gedragsproblemen in de vroege kindertijd, in het bijzonder fysieke agressie, bekeken. Geconcludeerd kan worden dat het RF-vermogen van de moeder een belangrijke rol speelt bij het ontwikkelen van (voorlopers van) gedragsproblemen. Over het algemeen genomen lijkt een beter prenataal RF-vermogen van de moeder samen te hangen met een kleinere kans op het ontwikkelen van vroege fysieke agressie. De bevindingen suggereren dat het bij de preventie en aanpak van vroege gedragsproblemen belangrijk is om te investeren in het verbeteren van het ouderlijk RF, bij voorkeur al tijdens de zwangerschap. Show less
Smaling, H.J.A.; Huijbregts, S.C.J.; Heijden, K.B. van der; Hay, D.F.; Goozen, S.H.M. van; Swaab, H. 2017
Between 10 and 14 months, infants gain the ability to learn about unfamiliar stimuli by observing others’ emotional reactions to those stimuli, so called social referencing (SR). Joint processing... Show moreBetween 10 and 14 months, infants gain the ability to learn about unfamiliar stimuli by observing others’ emotional reactions to those stimuli, so called social referencing (SR). Joint processing of emotion and head/gaze direction is essential for SR. This study tested emotion and head/gaze direction effects on infants’ attention via pupillometry in the period following the emergence of SR. Pupil responses of 14-to-17-month-old infants (N = 57) were measured during computerized presentations of unfamiliar objects alone, before-and-after being paired with emotional (happy, sad, fearful vs. neutral) faces gazing towards (vs. away) from objects. Additionally, the associations of infants’ temperament, and parents’ negative affect/depression/anxiety with infants’ pupil responses were explored. Both mothers and fathers of participating infants completed questionnaires about their negative affect, depression and anxiety symptoms and their infants’ negative temperament. Infants allocated more attention (larger pupils) to negative vs. neutral faces when the faces were presented alone, while they allocated less attention to objects paired with emotional vs. neutral faces independent of head/gaze direction. Sad (but not fearful) temperament predicted more attention to emotional faces. Infants’ sad temperament moderated the associations of mothers’ depression (but not anxiety) with infants’ attention to objects. Maternal depression predicted more attention to objects paired with emotional expressions in infants low in sad temperament, while it predicted less attention in infants high in sad temperament. Fathers’ depression (but not anxiety) predicted more attention to objects paired with emotional expressions independent of infants’ temperament. We conclude that infants’ own temperamental dispositions for sadness, and their exposure to mothers’ and fathers’ depressed moods may influence infants’ attention to emotion-object associations in social learning contexts. Show less
By using innovative paradigms, the present thesis provides convincing evidence that action-effect learning, and sensorimotor processes in general play a crucial role in the development of action-... Show moreBy using innovative paradigms, the present thesis provides convincing evidence that action-effect learning, and sensorimotor processes in general play a crucial role in the development of action- perception and production in infancy. This finding was further generalized to sequential action. Furthermore the thesis suggests that means-selection-, ends-selection information, and action-effect knowledge together feed into a unitary concept of goal. Both these findings have the potential to generate interesting new research question Show less
In the present thesis, a homogeneous upper middle class sample of firstborn girls and their mothers were followed from infancy (18 and 24 months) to middle childhood (89 months) using... Show moreIn the present thesis, a homogeneous upper middle class sample of firstborn girls and their mothers were followed from infancy (18 and 24 months) to middle childhood (89 months) using questionnaires and observations. The focus of the study was on three components of moral behavior, i.e. empathy, compliance and prosocial behavoir. The longitudinal development and stability of empathy and compliance from infancy to middle childhood was described, and their relation to prosocial behavior in middle childhood. Empathic concern towards mother increased from 18 to 24 months, but strongly decreased from 24 to 89 months. Empathic concern toward an unfamiliar person decreased from 18 to 89 months. Compliance increased from 18 to 89 months. Only empathy towards mother seems to be fertile ground for donating to charitable organizations like UNICEF. Also, the role of antecedent and concurrent sensitivity and attachment security in prosocial, externalizing, and internalizing behavior in middle childhood was investigated. Results showed that, controlling for concurrent influences, maternal sensitivity and attachment security in infancy predicted prosocial and externalizing behavior Show less
