A remarkable finding in recent research in psychopathology is that not every child is equally susceptible to interventions. Research showed that genetic differences, and in particular a... Show moreA remarkable finding in recent research in psychopathology is that not every child is equally susceptible to interventions. Research showed that genetic differences, and in particular a dopamine-related gene, DRD4, predict who will benefit from interventions, and who will not. In the project "What Works for Whom", this theory was tested, on a large-scale, in the field of early literacy. More than 180 schools spread over the Netherlands were involved in the experiments. We tested the hypothesis that children who were carrier of the DRD4 7-repeat allele, were more receptive to digital educational interventions; one program aimed at understanding the alphabetic principle, and the other program included digital storybooks with animated illustrations. Results for the book reading program were in line with the differential susceptibility theory. The carriers of the DRD4 7-repeat allele, about one-third of the children, benefitted extra from digital storybooks and outperformed their non-carrier peers. For non-carriers the digital books added nothing to the experience children already had with book reading in school and at home. For carriers of the DRD4 7-repeat allele the digital storybooks are a new essential in the curriculum in kindergarten. Show less
Early interventions address concerns that an unacceptably large number of children are already, by four years of age, lacking in competencies fundamental to success in learning to read. Using a... Show moreEarly interventions address concerns that an unacceptably large number of children are already, by four years of age, lacking in competencies fundamental to success in learning to read. Using a randomized controlled trial, the studies presented in this thesis examined program features and children__s behavioral and genetic characteristics (e.g., regulatory skills and DRD4) that might be of influence on learning effects of an exemplary computer intervention program Living Letters. Our conclusions include three major points. First, computer-aided instruction can be a useful tool in early literacy education, even in kindergarten-age (chapter 2). Second, the efficiency depends on the presence of immediate and individualized oral feedback. Without feedback the target program is not a stronger stimulus for learning code-related skills than daily experiences with written language (chapter 3). Third, a large part of the children benefits from the computer intervention but not all children. Susceptible children outperform the rest with a program enriched with positive, responsive interactions; they suffer more from instruction without these vital elements. The less susceptible group benefits from all opportunities for learning without excelling in the most helpful condition (chapter 4). This susceptibility is associated with a genetic predisposition to dopamine-regulated reward- and attention-related mechanisms and may influence learning via executive attention (chapter 5). Show less
