While cyberspace as a globally interconnected network offers economic, social and informational potential, at the same time this space also produces a wide variety of risks, for which no easy... Show moreWhile cyberspace as a globally interconnected network offers economic, social and informational potential, at the same time this space also produces a wide variety of risks, for which no easy solutions exist. For the international community, for nation states, for organizations and even for individuals, uncertainty is a common thread for interaction, communication and the general use of (systems connected to) cyberspace. This research shows that there are five different common reactions to dealing with this uncertainty in cyberspace: (1) using risk management to control uncertainty; (2) recovering from uncertainty through resilience; (3) influencing uncertainty with laws and regulation; suspending uncertainty by engaging in trust; and (5) ignoring uncertainty through inaction. Some of these approaches are used more often than others. For instance, risk management is currently the dominant way of responding to uncertainty in cyberspace, with resilience gaining prominence. Other strategies, such as relying on trust or inaction, are less common. Oftentimes, using a mixture of strategies may be helpful, because some strategies may strengthen one another, for instance when a combination of risk management and resilience approaches is used. Each strategy has particular use for specific contexts, but since we lack an overview of which strategies are being used, we also cannot establish under which conditions which strategy is most beneficial. Solving this lack of knowledge can help us be more effective in dealing with uncertainties of a wide variety in cyberspace. Show less
The increasing use of digital technologies in cyberspace in the context of international conflicts has put pressure on the existing legal framework of international law. After progress in terms of... Show moreThe increasing use of digital technologies in cyberspace in the context of international conflicts has put pressure on the existing legal framework of international law. After progress in terms of norm development and clarification could be achieved through multilateral processes at the United Nations, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine cast doubt on the possibility of further breakthroughs. In light of this development, unilateral declarations of legal positions by states will gain further relevance. Show less
While cyberspace has become central to all vital processes in our global economy and our social lives it also carries a wide variety of risks. Framing these risks is no easy feat: some lead to harm... Show moreWhile cyberspace has become central to all vital processes in our global economy and our social lives it also carries a wide variety of risks. Framing these risks is no easy feat: some lead to harm in cyberspace itself, while others lead to harm in the offline world as well. Moreover, sometimes harm is brought about intentionally, while at other times it may be the result of accidents. The ‘cyber harm model’ brings these challenges together, and provides us with an opportunity to get a comprehensive overview of the different types of incidents related to cyberspace. It also reveals where the biggest challenges for cyber crisis management lie and it provides us with a typology of different types of cyber crises that may arise. Cyber-induced crises have characteristics that make them hard to grapple with, for instance the fact that they can be induced remotely and instantaneously at multiple locations. Moreover, cyber crises are not always easily traceable, and sometimes it is difficult to see that the cause of a particular crisis in the offline world is an act in cyberspace. Finally, the borderless nature of cyberspace leads to potential large-scale geographical spread for cyber crises. Cyber crises also lead to a number of specific challenges for leadership, especially with respect to sense-making, meaning-making, decision-making, termination and learning. Show less