Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising drug carriers of photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy (PDT) in cancer treatment, due to their ability to circulate in blood and enter cells... Show moreExtracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising drug carriers of photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy (PDT) in cancer treatment, due to their ability to circulate in blood and enter cells efficiently. The therapeutic potential of EVs has been suggested to depend on the type and physiological state of their cell of origin. However, the effects of deriving EVs from various cells in different physiological states on their antitumor capacity are rarely evaluated. In the present study, we compared the antitumor efficacy of EV-mediated PDT by incorporating the photosensitizer Zinc Phthalocyanine (ZnPc) into EVs from multiple cells sources. ZnPc was incorporated by a direct incubation strategy into EVs derived from immune cells (M1-like macrophages and M2-like macrophages), cancer cells (B16F10 melanoma cancer cells) and external sources (milk). Our data show that all EVs are suitable carriers for ZnPc and enable efficient PDT in vitro in co-culture models and in vivo. We observed that EV-mediated PDT initiates immunogenic cell death through the release and exposure of damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) on cancer cells, which subsequently induced dendritic cell (DC) maturation. Importantly, of all ZnPc-EVs tested, in absence of light only M1-ZnPc displayed toxicity to MC38, but not to DC, in monoculture and in co-culture, indicating specificity for cancer over immune cells. In MC38 tumor-bearing mice, only M1-ZnPc induced a tumor growth delay compared to control in absence of light. Interestingly, M1- but not M2-mediated PDT, induced complete responses against MC38 tumors in murine models (100% versus 38% of cases, respectively), with survival of all animals up to at least 60 days post inoculation. Finally, we show that all cured animals are protected from a rechallenge with MC38 cells, suggesting the induction of immunological memory after EV-mediated PDT. Together, our data show the importance of the cell type from which the EVs are obtained and highlight the impact of the immunological state of these cells on the antitumor efficacy of EV-mediated PDT. Show less
In cancer treatment, nanomedicines may be employed in an attempt to improve the tumor localization of antineoplastic drugs e.g. immunotherapeutic agents either through passive or active targeting,... Show moreIn cancer treatment, nanomedicines may be employed in an attempt to improve the tumor localization of antineoplastic drugs e.g. immunotherapeutic agents either through passive or active targeting, thereby potentially enhancing therapeutic effect and reducing undesired off-target effects. However, a large number of administrated nanocarriers often fail to reach the tumor area. In the present study, we show that photodynamic therapy (PDT) enhances the tumor accumulation of systemically administered lipid-PEG layer coated poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NP). Intravital microscopy and histological analysis of the tumor area reveal that the tumor vasculature was disrupted after PDT, disturbing blood flow and coinciding with entrapment of nanocarriers in the tumor area. We observed that the nanoparticles accumulating after treatment do not confine to specific locations within the tumor, but rather localize to various cells present throughout the tumor area. Finally, we show by flow cytometry that NP accumulation occurred mostly in immune cells of the myeloid lineage present in the tumor microenvironment (TME) as well as in tumor cells, albeit to a lower extent. These data expose opportunities for combination treatments of clinical PDT with NP-based immunotherapy to modulate the TME and improve antitumor immune responses. Show less
