Context. We have analysed far-infrared spectra of 32 circumstellar disks around Herbig Ae/Be and T Tauri stars obtained within the Herschel key programme Dust, Ice and Gas in Time (DIGIT). The... Show moreContext. We have analysed far-infrared spectra of 32 circumstellar disks around Herbig Ae/Be and T Tauri stars obtained within the Herschel key programme Dust, Ice and Gas in Time (DIGIT). The spectra were taken with the Photodetector Array Camera and Spectrometer (PACS) on board the Herschel Space Observatory. In this paper we focus on the detection and analysis of the 69 {$μ$}m emission band of the crystalline silicate forsterite. Aims: This work aims at providing an overview of the 69 {$μ$}m forsterite bands present in the DIGIT sample. We use characteristics of the emission band (peak position and FWHM) to derive the dust temperature and to constrain the iron content of the crystalline silicates. With this information, constraints can be placed on the spatial distribution of the forsterite in the disk and the formation history of the crystalline grains. Methods: The 69 {$μ$}m forsterite emission feature is analysed in terms of position and shape to derive the temperature and composition of the dust by comparison to laboratory spectra of that band. The PACS spectra are combined with existing Spitzer IRS spectra and we compare the presence and strength of the 69 {$μ$}m band to the forsterite bands at shorter wavelengths. Results: A total of 32 disk sources have been observed. Out of these 32, 8 sources show a 69 {$μ$}m emission feature that can be attributed to forsterite. With the exception of the T Tauri star AS 205, all of the detections are for disks associated with Herbig Ae/Be stars. Most of the forsterite grains that give rise to the 69 {$μ$}m bands are found to be warm (~{}100-200 K) and iron-poor (less than ~{}2% iron). AB Aur is the only source where the emission cannot be fitted with iron-free forsterite requiring approximately 3-4% of iron. Conclusions: Our findings support the hypothesis that the forsterite grains form through an equilibrium condensation process at high temperatures. The large width of the emission band in some sources may indicate the presence of forsterite reservoirs at different temperatures. The connection between the strength of the 69 and 33 {$μ$}m bands shows that at least part of the emission in these two bands originates fom the same dust grains. We further find that any model that can explain the PACS and the Spitzer IRS observations must take the effects of a wavelength dependent optical depth into account. We find weak indications of a correlation of the detection rate of the 69 {$μ$}m band with the spectral type of the host stars in our sample. However, the sample size is too small to obtain a definitive result. Appendix A is available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.org Show less
Marel, N. van der; Kristensen, L.; Visser, R.; Mottram, J.C.; Yildiz, U.; Dishoeck, E.F. van 2013
Context. The outflow force of molecular bipolar outflows is a key parameter in theories of young stellar feedback on their surroundings. The focus of many outflow studies is the correlation between... Show moreContext. The outflow force of molecular bipolar outflows is a key parameter in theories of young stellar feedback on their surroundings. The focus of many outflow studies is the correlation between the outflow force, bolometric luminosity, and envelope mass. However, it is difficult to combine the results of different studies in large evolutionary plots over many orders of magnitude due to the range of data quality, analysis methods, and corrections for observational effects, such as opacity and inclination. Aims: We aim to determine the outflow force for a sample of low-luminosity embedded sources. We quantify the influence of the analysis method and the assumptions entering the calculation of the outflow force. Methods: We used the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope to map $^{12}$CO J = 3-2 over 2'{ imes} 2' regions around 16 Class I sources of a well-defined sample in Ophiuchus at 15{Prime} resolution. The outflow force was then calculated using seven different methods differing, e.g., in the use of intensity-weighted emission and correction factors for inclination. Two well studied outflows (HH 46 and NGC1 333 IRAS4A) are added to the sample and included in the comparison. Results: The results from the analysis methods differ from each other by up to a factor of 6, whereas observational properties and choices in the analysis procedure affect the outflow force by up to a factor of 4. Subtraction of cloud emission and integrating over the remaining profile increases the outflow force at most by a factor of 4 compared to line wing integration. For the sample of Class I objects, bipolar outflows are detected around 13 sources including 5 new detections, where the three nondetections are confused by nearby outflows from other sources. New outflow structures without a clear powering source are discovered at the corners of some of the maps. Conclusions: When combining outflow forces from different studies, a scatter by up to a factor of 5 can be expected. Although the true outflow force remains unknown, the separation method (separate calculation of dynamical time and momentum) is least affected by the uncertain observational parameters. The correlations between outflow force, bolometric luminosity, and envelope mass are further confirmed down to low-luminosity sources. Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.org Show less
Using the IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer (PdBI), we report the detection of water vapor in six new lensed ultra-luminous starburst galaxies at high redshift, discovered in the Herschel... Show moreUsing the IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer (PdBI), we report the detection of water vapor in six new lensed ultra-luminous starburst galaxies at high redshift, discovered in the Herschel Astrophysical Terahertz Large Area Survey (H-ATLAS). The sources are detected either in the 2$_{02}$-1$_{11}$ or 2$_{11}$-2$_{02}$ H$_{2}$O emission lines with integrated line fluxes ranging from 1.8 to 14 Jy km s$^{-1}$. The corresponding apparent luminosities are {$μ$}L$_{H2}$O ~{} 3-12 { imes} 10$^{8}$ L$_{⊙}$, where {$μ$} is the lensing magnification factor (3 {lt} {$μ$} {lt} 12). These results confirm that H$_{2}$O lines are among the strongest molecular lines in high-z ultra-luminous starburst galaxies, with intensities almost comparable to those of the high-J CO lines, and similar profiles and line widths (~{}200-900 km s$^{-1}$). With the current sensitivity of the PdBI, the water lines can therefore easily be detected in high-z lensed galaxies (with F(500 {$μ$}m) {gt} 100 mJy) discovered in the Herschel surveys. Correcting the luminosities for amplification, using existing lensing models, L$_{H2}$O is found to have a strong dependence on the infrared luminosity, varying as ~{}L$_{IR}$$^{1.2}$. This relation, which needs to be confirmed with better statistics, may indicate a role of radiative (infrared) excitation of the H$_{2}$O lines, and implies that high-z galaxies with L$_{IR}$ {gsim} 10$^{13}$ L$_{⊙}$ tend to be very strong emitters in water vapor, that have no equivalent in the local universe. Herschel (Pilbratt et al. 2010) is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. Show less
We present far-infrared (50-200 {$μ$}m) spectroscopic observations of young pre-main-sequence stars taken with Herschel/PACS as part of the DIGIT key project. The sample includes 16 Herbig AeBe... Show moreWe present far-infrared (50-200 {$μ$}m) spectroscopic observations of young pre-main-sequence stars taken with Herschel/PACS as part of the DIGIT key project. The sample includes 16 Herbig AeBe and 4 T Tauri sources observed in SED mode covering the entire spectral range. An additional 6 Herbig AeBe and 4 T Tauri systems have been observed in SED mode with a limited spectral coverage. Multiple atomic fine structure and molecular lines are detected at the source position: [O i], [C ii], CO, OH, H$_{2}$O, CH$^{+}$. The most common feature is the [O i] 63 {$μ$}m line detected in almost all of the sources, followed by OH. In contrast with CO, OH is detected toward both Herbig AeBe groups (flared and non-flared sources). An isothermal LTE slab model fit to the OH lines indicates column densities of 10$^{13}$ {lt} N$_{OH}$ {lt} 10$^{16}$ cm$^{-2}$, emitting radii 15 {lt} r {lt} 100 AU and excitation temperatures 100 {lt} T$_{ex}$ {lt} 400 K. We used the non-LTE code RADEX to verify the LTE assumption. High gas densities (n {ge} 10$^{10}$ cm$^{-3}$) are needed to reproduce the observations. The OH emission thus comes from a warm layer in the disk at intermediate stellar distances. Warm H$_{2}$O emission is detected through multiple lines toward the T Tauri systems AS 205, DG Tau, S CrA and RNO 90 and three Herbig AeBe systems HD 104237, HD 142527, HD 163296 (through line stacking). Overall, Herbig AeBe sources have higher OH/H$_{2}$O abundance ratios across the disk than do T Tauri disks, from near- to far-infrared wavelengths. Far-infrared CH$^{+}$ emission is detected toward HD 100546 and HD 97048. The slab model suggests moderate excitation (T$_{ex}$ ~{} 100 K) and compact (r ~{} 60 AU) emission in the case of HD 100546. Off-source [O i] emission is detected toward DG Tau, whose origin is likely the outflow associated with this source. The [C ii] emission is spatially extended in all sources where the line is detected. This suggests that not all [C ii] emission is associated with the disk and that there is a substantial contribution from diffuse material around the young stars. The flux ratios of the atomic fine structure lines ([O i] 63 {$μ$}m, [O i] 145 {$μ$}m, [C ii]) are analyzed with PDR models and require high gas density (n {gsim} 10$^{5}$ cm$^{-3}$) and high UV fluxes (G$_o$ ~{} 10$^{3}$ - 10$^{7}$), consistent with a disk origin for the oxygen lines for most of the sources. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
Sotomayor-Beltran, C.; Sobey, C.; Hessels, J.W.T.; Bruyn, G. de; Noutsos, A.; Alexov, A.; ... ; Zarka, P. 2013
Faraday rotation measurements using the current and next generation of low-frequency radio telescopes will provide a powerful probe of astronomical magnetic fields. However, achieving the full... Show moreFaraday rotation measurements using the current and next generation of low-frequency radio telescopes will provide a powerful probe of astronomical magnetic fields. However, achieving the full potential of these measurements requires accurate removal of the time-variable ionospheric Faraday rotation contribution. We present ionFR, a code that calculates the amount of ionospheric Faraday rotation for a specific epoch, geographic location, and line-of-sight. ionFR uses a number of publicly available, GPS-derived total electron content maps and the most recent release of the International Geomagnetic Reference Field. We describe applications of this code for the calibration of radio polarimetric observations, and demonstrate the high accuracy of its modeled ionospheric Faraday rotations using LOFAR pulsar observations. These show that we can accurately determine some of the highest-precision pulsar rotation measures ever achieved. Precision rotation measures can be used to monitor rotation measure variations - either intrinsic or due to the changing line-of-sight through the interstellar medium. This calibration is particularly important for nearby sources, where the ionosphere can contribute a significant fraction of the observed rotation measure. We also discuss planned improvements to ionFR, as well as the importance of ionospheric Faraday rotation calibration for the emerging generation of low-frequency radio telescopes, such as the SKA and its pathfinders. Show less
Context. Giant cluster radio relics are thought to form at shock fronts in the course of collisions between galaxy clusters. Via processes that are still poorly understood, these shocks accelerate... Show moreContext. Giant cluster radio relics are thought to form at shock fronts in the course of collisions between galaxy clusters. Via processes that are still poorly understood, these shocks accelerate or re-accelerate cosmic-ray electrons and might amplify magnetic fields. The best object to study this phenomenon is the galaxy cluster CIZA J2242.8+5301 as it shows the most undisturbed relic. By means of Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) and Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) data at seven frequencies spanning from 153 MHz to 2272 MHz, we study the synchrotron emission in this cluster. Aims: We aim at distinguishing between theoretical injection and acceleration models proposed for the formation of radio relics. We also study the head-tail radio sources to reveal the interplay between the merger and the cluster galaxies. Methods: We produced spectral index, curvature maps, and radio colour-colour plots and compared our data with predictions from models. Results: We present one of the deepest 153 MHz maps of a cluster ever produced, reaching a noise level of 1.5 mJy beam$^{-1}$. We derive integrated spectra for four relics in the cluster, discovering extremely steep spectrum diffuse emission concentrated in multiple patches. We find a possible radio phoenix embedded in the relic to the south of the cluster. The spectral index of the northern relic retains signs of steepening from the front towards the back of the shock also at the radio frequencies below 600 MHz. The spectral curvature in the same relic also increases in the downstream area. The data is consistent with the Komissarov-Gubanov injection models, meaning that the emission we observe is produced by a single burst of spectrally-aged accelerated radio electrons. Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgImages as FITS files are only available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (ftp://130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/555/A110Show less
Context. In the dense and cold interiors of starless molecular cloud cores, a number of chemical processes allow for the formation of complex molecules and the deposition of ice layers on dust... Show moreContext. In the dense and cold interiors of starless molecular cloud cores, a number of chemical processes allow for the formation of complex molecules and the deposition of ice layers on dust grains. Dust density and temperature maps of starless cores derived from Herschel continuum observations constrain the physical structure of the cloud cores better than ever before. We use these to model the temporal chemical evolution of starless cores. Aims: We derive molecular abundance profiles for a sample of starless cores. We then analyze these using chemical modeling based on dust temperature and hydrogen density maps derived from Herschel continuum observations. Methods: We observed the $^{12}$CO (2-1), $^{13}$CO (2-1), C$^{18}$O (2-1) and N$_{2}$H$^{+}$ (1-0) transitions towards seven isolated, nearby low-mass starless molecular cloud cores. Using far infrared (FIR) and submillimeter (submm) dust emission maps from the Herschel key program Earliest Phases of Star formation (EPoS) and by applying a ray-tracing technique, we derived the physical structure (density, dust temperature) of these cores. Based on these results we applied time-dependent chemical modeling of the molecular abundances. We modeled the molecular emission profiles with a line-radiative transfer code and compared them to the observed emission profiles. Results: CO is frozen onto the grains in the center of all cores in our sample. The level of CO depletion increases with hydrogen density and ranges from 46% up to more than 95% in the core centers of the three cores with the highest hydrogen density. The average hydrogen density at which 50% of CO is frozen onto the grains is 1.1 {plusmn} 0.4 { imes} 10$^{5}$ cm$^{-3}$. At about this density, the cores typically have the highest relative abundance of N$_{2}$H$^{+}$. The cores with higher central densities show depletion of N$_{2}$H$^{+}$ at levels of 13% to 55%. The chemical ages for the individual species are on average (2 {plusmn} 1) { imes} 10$^{5}$ yr for $^{13}$CO, (6 {plusmn} 3) { imes} 10$^{4}$ yr for C$^{18}$O, and (9 {plusmn} 2) { imes} 10$^{4}$ yr for N$_{2}$H$^{+}$. Chemical modeling indirectly suggests that the gas and dust temperatures decouple in the envelopes and that the dust grains are not yet significantly coagulated. Conclusions: We observationally confirm chemical models of CO-freezeout and nitrogen chemistry. We find clear correlations between the hydrogen density and CO depletion and the emergence of N$_{2}$H$^{+}$. The chemical ages indicate a core lifetime of less than 1 Myr. This work is partially based on observations by the Herschel Space Observatory. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
Persson, M.V.; Jørgensen, J.K.; Dishoeck, E.F. van 2013
Context. Measuring the water deuterium fractionation in the inner warm regions of low-mass protostars has so far been hampered by poor angular resolution obtainable with single-dish ground- and... Show moreContext. Measuring the water deuterium fractionation in the inner warm regions of low-mass protostars has so far been hampered by poor angular resolution obtainable with single-dish ground- and space-based telescopes. Observations of water isotopologues using (sub)millimeter wavelength interferometers have the potential to shed light on this matter. Aims: To measure the water deuterium fractionation in the warm gas of the deeply-embedded protostellar binary IRAS 16293-2422. Methods: Observations toward IRAS 16293-2422 of the 5$_{3,2}$ - 4$_{4,1}$ transition of H$_{2}$$^{18}$O at 692.07914 GHz from Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) as well as the 3$_{1,3}$ - 2$_{2,0}$ of H$_{2}$$^{18}$O at 203.40752 GHz and the 3$_{1,2}$ - 2$_{2,1}$ transition of HDO at 225.89672 GHz from the Submillimeter Array (SMA) are presented. Results: The 692 GHz H$_{2}$$^{18}$O line is seen toward both components of the binary protostar. Toward one of the components, ''source B'', the line is seen in absorption toward the continuum, slightly red-shifted from the systemic velocity, whereas emission is seen off-source at the systemic velocity. Toward the other component, ''source A'', the two HDO and H$_{2}$$^{18}$O lines are detected as well with the SMA. From the H$_{2}$$^{18}$O transitions the excitation temperature is estimated at 124 {plusmn} 12 K. The calculated HDO/H$_{2}$O ratio is (9.2 {plusmn} 2.6) { imes} 10$^{-4}$ - significantly lower than previous estimates in the warm gas close to the source. It is also lower by a factor of ~{}5 than the ratio deduced in the outer envelope. Conclusions: Our observations reveal the physical and chemical structure of water vapor close to the protostars on solar-system scales. The red-shifted absorption detected toward source B is indicative of infall. The excitation temperature is consistent with the picture of water ice evaporation close to the protostar. The low HDO/H$_{2}$O ratio deduced here suggests that the differences between the inner regions of the protostars and the Earth's oceans and comets are smaller than previously thought. Appendix A is available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
De Juan Ovelar, M.; Min, M.; Dominik, C.; Thalmann, C.; Pinilla Ortiz, P.A.; Benisty, M.; Birnstiel, T. 2013
Transitional discs are a special type of protoplanetary disc, where planet formation is thought to be taking place. These objects feature characteristic inner cavities and/or gaps of a few tens of... Show moreTransitional discs are a special type of protoplanetary disc, where planet formation is thought to be taking place. These objects feature characteristic inner cavities and/or gaps of a few tens of AUs in sub-millimetre images of the disc. This signature suggests a localised depletion of matter in the disc that could be caused by planet formation processes. However, recent observations have revealed differences in the structures imaged at different wavelengths in some of these discs. In this paper, we aim to explain these observational differences using self-consistent physical 2D hydrodynamical and dust evolution models of these objects, assuming their morphology is indeed generated by the presence of a planet. We use these models to derive the distribution of gas and dust in a theoretical planet-hosting disc for various planet masses and orbital separations. We then simulate observations of the emitted and scattered light from these models with Very Large Telescope (VLT)/SPHERE-ZIMPOL, Subaru/HiCIAO, VLT/VISIR, and ALMA. We do this by first computing the full resolution images of the models at different wavelengths and then simulating the observations while accounting for the characteristics of each particular instrument. The presence of the planet generates pressure bumps in the gas distribution of the disc, whose characteristics strongly depend on the planet mass and position. These bumps cause large grains to accumulate, while small grains are allowed into inner regions. This spatial differentiation of the grain sizes explains the differences in the observations, since different wavelengths and observing techniques trace different parts of the dust size distribution. Based on this effect, we conclude that the combination of visible/near-infrared polarimetric and sub-mm images is the best strategy to constrain the properties of the unseen planet responsible for the disc structure. Show less
We present the study of the CoRoT transiting planet candidate 101186644, also named LRc01_E1_4780. Analysis of the CoRoT lightcurve and the HARPS spectroscopic follow-up observations of this faint... Show moreWe present the study of the CoRoT transiting planet candidate 101186644, also named LRc01_E1_4780. Analysis of the CoRoT lightcurve and the HARPS spectroscopic follow-up observations of this faint (m$_V$ = 16) candidate revealed an eclipsing binary composed of a late F-type primary (T$_{eff}$ = 6090 {plusmn} 200 K) and a low-mass, dense late M-dwarf secondary on an eccentric (e = 0.4) orbit with a period of ~{}20.7 days. The M-dwarf has a mass of 0.096 {plusmn} 0.011 M$_{⊙}$, and a radius of 0.104$_{-0.006}$$^{+0.026}$ R$_{⊙}$, which possibly makes it the smallest and densest late M-dwarf reported so far. Unlike the claim that theoretical models predict radii that are 5-15% smaller than measured for low-mass stars, this one seems to have a radius that is consistent and might even be below the radius predicted by theoretical models. Based on observations made with the 1-m telescope at the Wise Observatory, Israel, the Swiss 1.2-m Leonhard Euler telescope at La Silla Observatory, Chile, the IAC-80 telescope at the Observatory del Teide, Canarias, Spain, and the 3.6-m telescope at La Silla Observatory (ESO), Chile (program 184.C-0639). Show less
Herrera, C.; Rubio, M.; Bolatto, A.; Boulanger, F.; Israel, F.P.; Rantakyrö, F. 2013
Context. It is hypothesized that low-mass young stellar objects undergo eruptive phases during their early evolution. These eruptions are thought to be caused by highly increased mass accretion... Show moreContext. It is hypothesized that low-mass young stellar objects undergo eruptive phases during their early evolution. These eruptions are thought to be caused by highly increased mass accretion from the disk onto the star, and therefore play an important role in the early evolution of Sun-like stars, of their circumstellar disks (structure, dust composition), and in the formation of their planetary systems. The outburst of V1647 Ori between 2003 and 2006 offered a rare opportunity to investigate such an accretion event. Aims: By means of our interferometry observing campaign during this outburst, supplemented by other observations, we investigate the temporal evolution of the inner circumstellar structure of V1647 Ori, the region where Earth-like planets could be born. We also study the role of the changing extinction in the brightening of the object and separate it from the accretional brightening. Methods: We observed V1647 Ori with MIDI on the VLTI at two epochs in this outburst. First, during the slowly fading plateau phase (2005 March) and second, just before the rapid fading of the object (2005 September), which ended the outburst. We used the radiative transfer code MC3D to fit the interferometry data and the spectral energy distributions from five different epochs at different stages of the outburst. The comparison of these models allowed us to trace structural changes in the system on AU-scales. We also considered qualitative alternatives for the interpretation of our data. Results: We found that the disk and the envelope are similar to those of non-eruptive young stars and that the accretion rate varied during the outburst. We also found evidence for the increase of the inner radii of the circumstellar disk and envelope at the beginning of the outburst. Furthermore, the change of the interferometric visibilities indicates structural changes in the circumstellar material. We test a few scenarios to interpret these data. We also speculate that the changes are caused by the fading of the central source, which is not immediately followed by the fading of the outer regions. Conclusions: We found that most of our results fit in the canonical picture of young eruptive stars. Our study provided dynamical information from the regions of the innermost few AU of the system: changes of the inner radii of the disk and envelope. However, if the delay in the fading of the disk is responsible for the changes seen in the MIDI data, the effect should be confirmed by dynamical modeling. Based on observations made with ESO telescopes at the Paranal Observatory under program IDs 274.C-5026 and 076.C-0736. In addition, this work is based in part on archival data obtained with the Spitzer Space Telescope, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under a contract with NASA. Show less
We report a Herschel detection of high-J rotational CO lines from a dense knot in the supernova remnant Cas A. Based on a combined analysis of these rotational lines and previously observed ro... Show moreWe report a Herschel detection of high-J rotational CO lines from a dense knot in the supernova remnant Cas A. Based on a combined analysis of these rotational lines and previously observed ro-vibrational CO lines, we find the gas to be warm (two components at ~{}400 and 2000 K) and dense (10$^{6-7}$ cm$^{-3}$), with a CO column density of ~{}5 { imes} 10$^{17}$ cm$^{-2}$. This, along with the broad line widths (~{}400 km s$^{-1}$), suggests that the CO emission originates in the post-shock region of the reverse shock. As the passage of the reverse shock dissociates any existing molecules, the CO has most likely reformed in the past several years in the post-shock gas. The CO cooling time is similar to the CO formation time, therefore we discuss possible heating sources (UV photons from the shock front, X-rays, electron conduction) that may maintain the high column density of warm CO. Show less
Context. The {$ν$}$_{2}$ bending mode of pure CO$_{2}$ ice around 15.2 {$μ$}m exhibits a fine double-peak structure that offers a sensitive probe to study the physical and chemical properties of... Show moreContext. The {$ν$}$_{2}$ bending mode of pure CO$_{2}$ ice around 15.2 {$μ$}m exhibits a fine double-peak structure that offers a sensitive probe to study the physical and chemical properties of solid CO$_{2}$ in space. Current laboratory spectra do not fully resolve the CO$_{2}$ ice features. Aims: To improve the fitting of the observed CO$_{2}$ features, high-resolution solid-state infrared spectra of pure CO$_{2}$ ice are recorded in the laboratory for a series of astronomically relevant temperatures and at an unprecedented level of detail. Methods: The infrared spectra of pure CO$_{2}$ ice were recorded in the 4000 to 400 cm$^{-1}$ (2.5-25 {$μ$}m) region at a resolution of 0.1 cm$^{-1}$ using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Results: Accurate band positions and band widths (FWHM) of pure CO$_{2}$ ice are presented for temperatures of 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 K. The focus of this spectroscopic work is on the CO$_{2}$ ({$ν$}$_{2}$) bending mode, but more accurate data are also reported for the $^{12}$CO$_{2}$ and $^{13}$CO$_{2}$ ({$ν$}$_{3}$) stretching mode, and CO$_{2}$ ({$ν$}$_{1}$+{$ν$}$_{3}$) and (2{$ν$}$_{2}$+{$ν$}$_{3}$) combination bands. FITS files of the spectra are only available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (ftp://130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/555/A85Show less
We present results of far-infrared photometric observations with Herschel PACS of a sample of Upper Scorpius stars, with a detection rate of previously known disk-bearing K and M stars at 70, 100,... Show moreWe present results of far-infrared photometric observations with Herschel PACS of a sample of Upper Scorpius stars, with a detection rate of previously known disk-bearing K and M stars at 70, 100, and 160 {$μ$}m of 71%, 56%, and 50%, respectively. We fit power-law disk models to the spectral energy distributions of K {amp} M stars with infrared excesses, and have found that while many disks extend in to the sublimation radius, the dust has settled to lower scale heights than in disks of the less evolved Taurus-Auriga population, and have much reduced dust masses. We also conducted Herschel PACS observations for far-infrared line emission and JCMT observations for millimeter CO lines. Among B and A stars, 0 of 5 debris disk hosts exhibit gas line emission, and among K and M stars, only 2 of 14 dusty disk hosts are detected. The OI 63 {$μ$}m and CII 157 {$μ$}m lines are detected toward [PZ99] J160421.7-213028 and [PBB2002] J161420.3-190648, which were found in millimeter photometry to host two of the most massive dust disks remaining in the region. Comparison of the OI line emission and 63 {$μ$}m continuum to that of Taurus sources suggests the emission in the former source is dominated by the disk, while in the other there is a significant contribution from a jet. The low dust masses found by disk modeling and low number of gas line detections suggest that few stars in Upper Scorpius retain sufficient quantities of material for giant planet formation. By the age of Upper Scorpius, giant planet formation is essentially complete. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. Show less
Mooij, E. de; Brogi, M.; Kok, R. de; Snellen, I.A.G.; Kenworthy, M.A.; Karjalainen, R. 2013
Context. In recent years, day-side emission from about a dozen hot Jupiters has been detected through ground-based secondary eclipse observations in the near-infrared. These near-infrared... Show moreContext. In recent years, day-side emission from about a dozen hot Jupiters has been detected through ground-based secondary eclipse observations in the near-infrared. These near-infrared observations are vital for determining the energy budgets of hot Jupiters, since they probe the planet's spectral energy distribution near its peak. Aims: The aim of this work is to measure the K$_s$-band secondary eclipse depth of WASP-33b, the first planet discovered to transit an A-type star. This planet receives the highest level of irradiation of all transiting planets discovered to date. Furthermore, its host-star shows pulsations and is classified as a low-amplitude {$delta$} Scuti. Methods: As part of our GROUnd-based Secondary Eclipse (GROUSE) project we have obtained observations of two separate secondary eclipses of WASP-33b in the K$_s$-band using the LIRIS instrument on the William Herschel Telescope (WHT). The telescope was significantly defocused to avoid saturation of the detector for this bright star (K ~{} 7.5). To increase the stability and the cadence of the observations, they were performed in staring mode. We collected a total of 5100 and 6900 frames for the first and the second night respectively, both with an average cadence of 3.3 s. Results: On the second night the eclipse is detected at the 12 -{$σ$} level, with a measured eclipse depth of 0.244$_{-0.020}$$^{+0.027}$%. This eclipse depth corresponds to a brightness temperature of 3270$_{-160}$$^{+115}$ K. The measured brightness temperature on the second night is consistent with the expected equilibrium temperature for a planet with a very low albedo and a rapid re-radiation of the absorbed stellar light. For the other night the short out-of-eclipse baseline prevents good corrections for the stellar pulsations and systematic effects, which makes this dataset unreliable for eclipse depth measurements. This demonstrates the need of getting a sufficient out-of-eclipse baseline. Appendix A is available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgLight curves are only available at the CDS via anonymous ftp to cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr (130.79.128.5) or via http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/qcat?J/A+A/550/A54Show less
Leurini, S.; Wyrowski, F.; Herpin, F.; Tak, F.; Güsten, R.; Dishoeck, E.F. van 2013
Aims: Most studies of high-mass star formation focus on massive and/or luminous clumps, but the physical properties of their larger scale environment are poorly known. In this work, we aim at... Show moreAims: Most studies of high-mass star formation focus on massive and/or luminous clumps, but the physical properties of their larger scale environment are poorly known. In this work, we aim at characterising the effects of clustered star formation and feedback of massive stars on the surrounding medium by studying the distribution of warm gas through mid-J$^{12}$CO and $^{13}$CO observations. Methods: We present APEX $^{12}$CO(6-5), (7-6), $^{13}$CO(6-5), (8-7) and HIFI $^{13}$CO(10-9) maps of the star forming region G327.36-0.6 with a linear size of ~{}3 pc { imes} 4 pc. We infer the physical properties of the emitting gas on large scales through a local thermodynamic equilibrium analysis, while we apply a more sophisticated large velocity gradient approach on selected positions. Results: Maps of all lines are dominated in intensity by the photon dominated region around the Hii region G327.3-0.5. Mid-J$^{12}$CO emission is detected over the whole extent of the maps with excitation temperatures ranging from 20 K up to 80 K in the gas around the Hii region, and H$_{2}$ column densities from few 10$^{21}$ cm$^{-2}$ in the inter-clump gas to 3 { imes} 10$^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$ towards the hot core G327.3-0.6. The warm gas (traced by $^{12}$ and $^{13}$CO(6-5) emission) is only a small percentage (~{}10%) of the total gas in the infrared dark cloud, while it reaches values up to ~{}35% of the total gas in the ring surrounding the Hii region. The $^{12}$CO ladders are qualitatively compatible with photon dominated region models for high density gas, but the much weaker than predicted $^{13}$CO emission suggests that it comes from a large number of clumps along the line of sight. All lines are detected in the inter-clump gas when averaged over a large region with an equivalent radius of 50''(~{}0.8 pc), implying that the mid-J$^{12}$CO and $^{13}$CO inter-clump emission is due to high density components with low filling factor. Finally, the detection of the $^{13}$CO(10-9) line allows to disentangle the effects of gas temperature and gas density on the CO emission, which are degenerate in the APEX observations alone. Show less
Rafferty, D.A.; Haarlem, M.; Iacobelli, M.; Wise, M.; Gunst, A.; Heald, G.; ... ; others 2013
LOFAR, the LOw-Frequency ARray, is a new-generation radio interferometer constructed in the north of the Netherlands and across europe. Utilizing a novel phased-array design, LOFAR covers the... Show moreLOFAR, the LOw-Frequency ARray, is a new-generation radio interferometer constructed in the north of the Netherlands and across europe. Utilizing a novel phased-array design, LOFAR covers the largely unexplored low-frequency range from 10-240 MHz and provides a number of unique observing capabilities. Spreading out from a core located near the village of Exloo in the northeast of the Netherlands, a total of 40 LOFAR stations are nearing completion. A further five stations have been deployed throughout Germany, and one station has been built in each of France, Sweden, and the UK. Digital beam-forming techniques make the LOFAR system agile and allow for rapid repointing of the telescope as well as the potential for multiple simultaneous observations. With its dense core array and long interferometric baselines, LOFAR achieves unparalleled sensitivity and angular resolution in the low-frequency radio regime. The LOFAR facilities are jointly operated by the International LOFAR Telescope (ILT) foundation, as an observatory open to the global astronomical community. LOFAR is one of the first radio observatories to feature automated processing pipelines to deliver fully calibrated science products to its user community. LOFAR's new capabilities, techniques and modus operandi make it an important pathfinder for the Square Kilometre Array (SKA). We give an overview of the LOFAR instrument, its major hardware and software components, and the core science objectives that have driven its design. In addition, we present a selection of new results from the commissioning phase of this new radio observatory. Show less
