In dementia, neuropathological changes alter the perception and expression of pain. For clinicians and family members, this knowledge gap leads to difficulties in recognizing and assessing chronic... Show moreIn dementia, neuropathological changes alter the perception and expression of pain. For clinicians and family members, this knowledge gap leads to difficulties in recognizing and assessing chronic pain, which may consequently result in persons with dementia receiving lower levels of pain medication compared to those without cognitive impairment. Although this situation seems to have improved in recent years, considerable geographical variation persists. Over the last decade, opioid use has received global attention as a result of overuse and the risk of addiction, while the literature on older persons with dementia actually suggests undertreatment. This review stresses the importance of reliable assessment and the regular evaluation and monitoring of symptoms in persons with dementia. Based on current evidence, we concluded that chronic pain is still undertreated in dementia. Show less
ZusammenfassungDie Altersrevolution verandert die Zusammensetzung unserer Gesellschaft. Immer mehr Menschen erreichen ein sehr hohes Alter und haben damit ein gro ss eres Risiko, Schmerz und Demenz... Show moreZusammenfassungDie Altersrevolution verandert die Zusammensetzung unserer Gesellschaft. Immer mehr Menschen erreichen ein sehr hohes Alter und haben damit ein gro ss eres Risiko, Schmerz und Demenz zu entwickeln. Schmerz wird gewohnlich auf verbalem Weg kommuniziert, eine Fahigkeit, die bei Menschen mit Demenz zunehmend verloren geht. In der Folge leiden die Betroffenen unnotigerweise an behandelbarem, aber unerkanntem Schmerz. Die Schmerzerfassung bei Patienten mit Demenz ist eine Herausforderung, wobei die Forschung rasche Fortschritte verzeichnet. Instrumente und Protokolle zur Schmerzerfassung (hauptsachlich Fremdeinschatzungsskalen) wurden in nationale und internationale Leitlinien fur die Schmerzerfassung bei alteren Menschen aufgenommen. Fur eine effektive Schmerzerfassung ist eine interdisziplinare Zusammenarbeit von Pflegekraften, Arzten, Psychologen, Informatikern und Ingenieuren von grundlegender Bedeutung. Auch die Schmerzbehandlung erfolgt bei dieser vulnerablen Patientengruppe bevorzugt interdisziplinar. Nichtmedikamentose Therapieprogramme wurden uberwiegend an jungeren Populationen ohne Demenz untersucht. Viele dieser Ansatze sind jedoch relativ sicher, haben sich als wirksam erwiesen und sollten daher in Schmerztherapieprogrammen an erster Stelle stehen. Paracetamol ist ein relativ sicheres und wirksames Analgetikum der ersten Wahl. In Bezug auf die Anwendung von nichtsteroidalen Antirheumatika, Opioiden und Koanalgetika bei Patienten mit Demenz bestehen dagegen zahlreiche Sicherheitsrisiken. Daher werden regelma ss ige Kontrollen des Schmerzes wie auch der potenziellen Nebenwirkungen empfohlen. Fur eine bessere Orientierung in der Schmerzbehandlung bei Demenz ist weitere Forschung notwendig. Show less
Helmer, L.M.L.; Weijenberg, R.A.F.; Vries, R. de; Achterberg, W.P.; Lautenbacher, S.; Sampson, E.L.; Lobbezoo, F. 2020
Background Vocalization is often used to assess pain, sometimes combined with other behaviours such as facial expressions. Contrary to facial expressions, however, for vocalization, there is little... Show moreBackground Vocalization is often used to assess pain, sometimes combined with other behaviours such as facial expressions. Contrary to facial expressions, however, for vocalization, there is little evidence available on the association with pain. The aim of this systematic review was to critically analyse the association between vocalization and pain, to explore if vocalizations can be used as a "stand-alone" indicator for pain. Methods The search was performed according to the Prisma Guidelines for systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The following terms were used: "Pain Measurement," "Vocalization" and "Verbalization." The study population included verbal and non-verbal individuals, including older people and children. The search was performed in three different databases: PubMed, Embase and CINAHL. A total of 35 studies were selected for detailed investigation. Quality assessments were made using two grading systems: Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation system and the Newcastle-Ottawa scale. Results An association between vocalization and pain was found in most studies, particularly when different types of vocalizations were included in the investigation. Different types of vocalization, but also different types of pain, shape this association. The association is observed within all groups of individuals, although age, amongst others, may have an influence on preferred type of vocalization. Conclusions There is an association between vocalization and pain. However, vocalization as a "stand-alone" indicator for pain indicates only a limited aspect of this multifactorial phenomenon. Using vocalization as an indicator for pain may be more reliable if other pain indicators are also taken into account. Significance Vocalizations are frequently used in pain scales, although not yet thoroughly investigated as a "single indicator" for pain, like, e.g. facial expression. This review confirms the role of vocalizations in pain scales, and stresses that vocalizations might be more reliable if used in combination with other pain indicators. Show less
The ageing revolution is changing the composition of our society with more people becoming very old with higher risks for developing both pain and dementia. Pain is normally signaled by verbal... Show moreThe ageing revolution is changing the composition of our society with more people becoming very old with higher risks for developing both pain and dementia. Pain is normally signaled by verbal communication, which becomes more and more deteriorated in people with dementia. Thus, these individuals unnecessarily suffer from manageable but unrecognized pain. Pain assessment in patients with dementia is a challenging endeavor, with scientific advancements quickly developing. Pain assessment tools and protocols (mainly observational scales) have been incorporated into national and international guidelines of pain assessment in aged individuals. To effectively assess pain, interdisciplinary collaboration (nurses, physicians, psychologists, computer scientists, and engineers) is essential. Pain management in this vulnerable population is also preferably done in an interdisciplinary setting. Nonpharmacological management programs have been predominantly tested in younger populations without dementia. However, many of them are relatively safe, have proven their efficacy, and therefore deserve a first place in pain management programs. Paracetamol is a relatively safe and effective first-choice analgesic. There are many safety issues regarding nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, and adjuvant analgesics in dementia patients. It is therefore recommended to monitor both pain and potential side effects regularly. More research is necessary to provide better guidance for pain management in dementia. Show less
Kunz, M.; Waal, M.W.M. de; Achterberg, W.P.; Gimenez-Llort, L.; Lobbezoo, F.; Sampson, E.L.; ... ; Lautenbacher, S. 2020
Background: Over the last decades, a considerable number of observational scales have been developed to assess pain in persons with dementia. The time seems ripe now to build on the knowledge and... Show moreBackground: Over the last decades, a considerable number of observational scales have been developed to assess pain in persons with dementia. The time seems ripe now to build on the knowledge and expertize implemented in these scales to form an improved, "best-of" meta-tool. The EU-COST initiative "Pain in impaired cognition, especially dementia" aimed to do this by selecting items out of existing observational scales and critically re-assessing their suitability to detect pain in dementia. This paper reports on the final phase of this collaborative task.Methods: Items from existing observational pain scales were tested for "frequency of occurrence (item difficulty)," "reliability" and "validity." This psychometric testing was carried out in eight countries, in different healthcare settings, and included clinical as well as experimental pain conditions.Results: Across all studies, 587 persons with dementia, 27 individuals with intellectual disability, 12 Huntington's disease patients and 59 cognitively healthy controls were observed during rest and movement situations or while receiving experimental pressure pain, respectively. The psychometric outcomes for each item across the different studies were evaluated within an international and multidisciplinary team of experts and led a final selection of 15 items (5x facial expressions, 5x body movements, 5x vocalizations).Conclusions: The final list of 15 observational items have demonstrated psychometric quality and clinical usefulness both in their former scales and in the present international evaluation; accordingly, they qualified twice to form a new internationally agreed-on meta-tool for Pain Assessment in Impaired Cognition, the PAIC-15 scale. Significance: Using a meta-tool approach by building on previous observational pain assessment scales and putting the items of these scales through rigorous empirical testing (using experimental as well as clinical pain studies in several European countries), we were able to identify the best items for pain assessment in individuals with impaired cognition. These selected items form the novel PAIC15 scale (pain assessment in impaired cognition, 15 items). Show less
There are an estimated 35 million people with dementia across the world, of whom 50% experience regular pain. Despite this, current assessment and treatment of pain in this patient group are... Show moreThere are an estimated 35 million people with dementia across the world, of whom 50% experience regular pain. Despite this, current assessment and treatment of pain in this patient group are inadequate. In addition to the discomfort and distress caused by pain, it is frequently the underlying cause of behavioral symptoms, which can lead to inappropriate treatment with antipsychotic medications. Pain also contributes to further complications in treatment and care. This review explores four key perspectives of pain management in dementia and makes recommendations for practice and research. The first perspective discussed is the considerable uncertainty within the literature on the impact of dementia neuropathology on pain perception and processing in Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, where white matter lesions and brain atrophy appear to influence the neurobiology of pain. The second perspective considers the assessment of pain in dementia. This is challenging, particularly because of the limited capacity of self-report by these individuals, which means that assessment relies in large part on observational methods. A number of tools are available but the psychometric quality and clinical utility of these are uncertain. The evidence for efficient treatment (the third perspective) with analgesics is also limited, with few statistically well-powered trials. The most promising evidence supports the use of stepped treatment approaches, and indicates the benefit of pain and behavioral interventions on both these important symptoms. The fourth perspective debates further difficulties in pain management due to the lack of sufficient training and education for health care professionals at all levels, where evidence-based guidance is urgently needed. To address the current inadequate management of pain in dementia, a comprehensive approach is needed. This would include an accurate, validated assessment tool that is sensitive to different types of pain and therapeutic effects, supported by better training and support for care staff across all settings. Show less
Husebo, B.S.; Kunz, M.; Achterberg, W.P.; Lobbezoo, F.; Kappesser, J.; Tudose, C.; ... ; Lautenbacher, S. 2012
