Adhesive production is one of the earliest forms of transformative technology, predating ceramics and metallurgy by over 150,000 years. The study of the adhesives used by Neandertals and early... Show moreAdhesive production is one of the earliest forms of transformative technology, predating ceramics and metallurgy by over 150,000 years. The study of the adhesives used by Neandertals and early modern humans currently plays a significant role in debates about human technological and cognitive evolution. Depending on the type of adhesive used, different production sequences were required. These can vary in complexity and would have needed different knowledge, expertise, and resources to manufacture. However, our knowledge of this important technological development is severely hampered by poorly understood taphonomic processes, which affects the preservation and identification of adhesive materials and leads to a research bias. Here we present the results from a 3-year field preservation experiment. Flint flakes hafted and non-hafted with replica adhesives were left to weather naturally on and below the surface at two locations with different soils and climatic conditions. Differential preservation was recorded on a variety of natural adhesives by digitally measuring the surface area of each residue before and after the elapsed time. Residues were further assessed and photographed using metallographic optical microscopy. Results show that certain adhesives preserve to a significantly higher degree than others, while some materials may be more easily overlooked or visually misdiagnosed. We must therefore be aware of both taphonomic and identification biases when discussing ancient adhesive technology. This research provides a first look that will help us understand the disparities between which adhesives were used in the past and what we find in the archaeological record today. Show less
Amkreutz, L.; Dusseldorp, G.L.; Langejans, G.H.J.; Niekus, M. 2020
In 2016 raapte amateurarcheologe en -paleontologe Willy van Wingerden uit Honselersdijk op het strand bij Kijkduin een klein stukje vuursteen op met aan één kant een aangehechte zwarte materie. Ze... Show moreIn 2016 raapte amateurarcheologe en -paleontologe Willy van Wingerden uit Honselersdijk op het strand bij Kijkduin een klein stukje vuursteen op met aan één kant een aangehechte zwarte materie. Ze liet de vondst enkele dagen later aan archeoloog Marcel Niekus zien. Die werd direct enthousiast, het zwarte goedje zou wel eens berkenpek kunnen zijn. Daarmee werden in de prehistorie werktuigen vastgezet aan een schacht. Het bleek een topvondst te zijn, vergeleken met de vele ‘gewone’ vuurstenen artefacten die op dit strand werden gevonden. Niemand kon toen nog vermoeden dat deze vondst drie jaar later wetenschappelijk wereldnieuws zou zijn en een nieuw licht zou werpen op het gedrag van de neanderthalers. Show less
Amkreutz, L.; Dusseldorp, G.L.; Langejans, G.H.J.; Niekus, M. 2020
In 2016 raapte amateurarcheologe en -paleontologe Willy van Wingerden uit Honselersdijk op het strand bij Kijkduin een klein stukje vuursteen op met aan één kant een aangehechte zwarte materie. Ze... Show moreIn 2016 raapte amateurarcheologe en -paleontologe Willy van Wingerden uit Honselersdijk op het strand bij Kijkduin een klein stukje vuursteen op met aan één kant een aangehechte zwarte materie. Ze liet de vondst enkele dagen later aan archeoloog Marcel Niekus zien. Die werd direct enthousiast, het zwarte goedje zou wel eens berkenpek kunnen zijn. Daarmee werden in de prehistorie werktuigen vastgezet aan een schacht. Het bleek een topvondst te zijn, vergeleken met de vele ‘gewone’ vuurstenen artefacten die op dit strand werden gevonden. Niemand kon toen nog vermoeden dat deze vondst drie jaar later wetenschappelijk wereldnieuws zou zijn en een nieuw licht zou werpen op het gedrag van de neanderthalers. Show less
The destructive distillation of birch bark to produce tar has recently featured in debates about the technological and cognitive abilities of Neandertals and modern humans. The abilities to... Show moreThe destructive distillation of birch bark to produce tar has recently featured in debates about the technological and cognitive abilities of Neandertals and modern humans. The abilities to precisely control fire temperatures and to manipulate adhesive properties are believed to require advanced mental traits. However, the significance given to adhesive technology in these debates has quickly outgrown our understanding of birch bark tar and its manufacture using aceramic techniques. In this paper, we detail three experimental methods of Palaeolithic tar production ranging from simple to complex. We recorded the fuel, time, materials, temperatures, and tar yield for each method and compared them with the tar known from the Palaeolithic. Our results indicate that it is possible to obtain useful amounts of tar by combining materials and technology already in use by Neandertals. A ceramic container is not required, and temperature control need not be as precise as previously thought. However, Neandertals must have been able to recognize certain material properties, such as adhesive tack and viscosity. In this way, they could develop the technology from producing small traces of tar on partially burned bark to techniques capable of manufacturing quantities of tar equal to those found in the Middle Palaeolithic archaeological record. Show less
We explore if taxonomic analysis of archaeological mollusc assemblages can be used to reconstruct Late Pleistocene (MIS 5–3) coastal environments at Klasies River in South Africa. To obtain a... Show moreWe explore if taxonomic analysis of archaeological mollusc assemblages can be used to reconstruct Late Pleistocene (MIS 5–3) coastal environments at Klasies River in South Africa. To obtain a balanced reconstruction, we analyse the large molluscs separately from the so-called incidentals, the small mollusc species. Based on modern mollusc habitat preferences and tolerances we identify four different eco-profiles to help characterise sea surface temperatures and the character of the shore: temperature profile; geographical distribution; substrate; wave interaction. We hypothesise that changes in the Klasies River mollusc community/eco-profiles can be linked to global glacial and interglacial events and we define several testable assumptions. We found that in response to global warming and cooling events, the Klasies River mollusc communities change slightly, yet significantly. Other sources of marine environmental data confirm that average sea surface temperatures gradually decreased, but probably remained within the modern southern east coast range of variation. It appears that coastal sea surface temperatures of the warm Agulhas current were not particularly depressed during the occupation sequence. The character of the coastal topography does change more apparently during the occupation sequence of the sites and with it the mollusc assemblages: from an interglacial rocky shore in the Klasies and two Mossel Bay phases to a more glacial sandy environment during the Howiesons Poort and the MSA III. In conclusion, the temperature tolerance levels of many Klasies River mollusc species are too broad to reflect small changes in sea surface temperatures. However, in conjunction with other eco-profiles and environmental proxies, such as substrate requirements and oxygen isotopes, the temperature approximations are useful, particularly when evaluating large scale sea surface temperature fluctuations. For the characterisation of the shore and substrate we found the eco-profile approach very useful. Show less
Kozowyk, P.R.B.; Langejans, G.H.J.; Poulis, J.A. 2016
The production of compound adhesives using disparate ingredients is seen as some of the best evidence of advanced cognition outside of the use of symbolism. Previous field and laboratory testing of... Show moreThe production of compound adhesives using disparate ingredients is seen as some of the best evidence of advanced cognition outside of the use of symbolism. Previous field and laboratory testing of adhesives has shown the complexities involved in creating an effective Middle Stone Age glue using Acacia gum. However, it is currently unclear how efficient different adhesive recipes are, how much specific ingredients influence their performance, and how difficult it may have been for those ingredients to be combined to maximum effect. We conducted a series of laboratory-based lap shear and impact tests, following modern adhesion testing standards, to determine the efficacy of compound adhesives, with particular regard to the ingredient ratios. We tested rosin (colophony) and gum adhesives, containing additives of beeswax and ochre in varying ratios. During both lap shear and impact tests compound rosin adhesives performed better than single component rosin adhesives, and pure acacia gum was the strongest. The large difference in performance between each base adhesive and the significant changes in performance that occur due to relatively small changes in ingredient ratios lend further support to the notion that high levels of skill and knowledge were required to consistently produce the most effective adhesives. Show less
We review indications for the behavioural complexity of foraging strategies during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (~130 – 74 ka) at Blombos Cave and Klasies River, South Africa. Although the sites were... Show moreWe review indications for the behavioural complexity of foraging strategies during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (~130 – 74 ka) at Blombos Cave and Klasies River, South Africa. Although the sites were occupied by anatomically modern humans, it is debated whether they were also behaviourally modern. The exploitation of terrestrial small nocturnal browsers may be an indication for the use of complex foraging strategies such as trapping or net-hunting. Hence we analyse the terrestrial fauna of the sites in terms of represented size classes, dietary preference and activity patterns. Seasonally planned coastal visits are also considered ‘modern’ and may be recognised by the presence of large numbers of adult male seals and by shellfish only accessible at low tide. We therefore analyse the representation of marine mammals and the represented molluscs in terms of their habitat preference. Our study suggests that trapping and net-hunting were practised in Marine Isotope Stage 5. In addition, coastal visits were probably planned. Show less
