Cobalt is considered a critical raw material. Global cobalt demand is expected to quadruple in the next four decades, due primarily to lithium-ion battery demand. Uniquely, this study provides... Show moreCobalt is considered a critical raw material. Global cobalt demand is expected to quadruple in the next four decades, due primarily to lithium-ion battery demand. Uniquely, this study provides detailed geographically explicit data on the cobalt supply chain, with the aim of both determining how susceptible primary cobalt production is to supply chain disruptions, and to evaluate possible supply risks. We conclude that the risks for supply chain disruptions are high. Firstly, the cobalt market is highly concentrated, with more than half of the cobalt mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and almost half of the cobalt refined in China. Secondly, almost all cobalt is mined as a by-product of copper and nickel. Finally, political stability in production countries is considered to be medium to very weak. There are also several factors in play that reduce supply risks. The concentration of the individual mines, refineries and companies remains under the threshold of a concentrated market, and the estimated 80 artisanal cobalt mines further diversify the mined supply. A network analysis shows the important position of companies with high betweenness and degree centrality. A disruption at these companies can affect the functioning of the overall supply chain. The geographic and a network visualization provide useful insights in the supply risks. Based on the analysis, we recommend to diversify cobalt production, through the development of mines, refineries, and efforts to ensure socially and environmentally sustainable artisanal mining. Show less
Tukker, A.; Udo De Haes, H.A.; Groot, W.T. de; Barendse, G.; Huppes, G.; Voet, E. van der; ... ; Bodegom, P.M. van 2018
Forty years of Leiden environmental sciences relates the story of CML, today one of the Faculty of Science’s eight institutes but with its roots in a more or less in dependent group of ex-activists... Show moreForty years of Leiden environmental sciences relates the story of CML, today one of the Faculty of Science’s eight institutes but with its roots in a more or less in dependent group of ex-activists within the university. Back in the day, many of those at the top of the university would probably have had trouble accepting that ‘those upstarts’ would still be around forty years on – not locked away in some cubbyhole with their stencil duplicator, but as a professor, assistant professor or even a dean. Today they are professors emeritus or have retired: Helias Udo de Haes, Wouter de Groot, Gerard Barendse, Gjalt Huppes, Gerard Persoon, Hans de Iongh and Jan Boersema – which doesn’t stop most of them just carrying on working. And a new generation of environmental scientists is now leading CML’s research and teaching: Geert de Snoo, Arnold Tukker, Martina Vijver, Peter van Bodegom, Jeroen Guinée, Ester van der Voet and René Kleijn. Show less
Koning, A. de; Kleijn, E.G.M.; Huppes, G.; Sprecher, B.; Engelen, G. van; Tukker, A. 2017
We introduce several new resilience metrics for quantifying the resilience of critical material supply chains to disruptions and validate these metrics using the 2010 rare earth element (REE)... Show moreWe introduce several new resilience metrics for quantifying the resilience of critical material supply chains to disruptions and validate these metrics using the 2010 rare earth element (REE) crisis as a case study. Our method is a novel application of Event Sequence Analysis, supplemented with interviews of actors across the entire supply chain. We discuss resilience mechanisms in quantitative terms−time lags, response speeds, and maximum magnitudes−and in light of cultural differences between Japanese and European corporate practice. This quantification is crucial if resilience is ever to be taken into account in criticality assessments and a step toward determining supply and demand elasticities in the REE supply chain. We find that the REE system showed resilience mainly through substitution and increased non-Chinese primary production, with a distinct role for stockpiling. Overall, annual substitution rates reached 10% of total demand. Non-Chinese primary production ramped up at a speed of 4% of total market volume per year. The compound effect of these mechanisms was that recovery from the 2010 disruption took two years. The supply disruption did not nudge a system toward an appreciable degree of recycling. This finding has important implications for the circular economy concept, indicating that quite a long period of sustained material constraints will be necessary for a production-consumption system to naturally evolve toward a circular configuration Show less
Huppes, G.; Deetman, S.P.; Huele, R.; Kleijn, E.G.M.; Koning, A. de; Voet, E. van der 2016
Human society has always depended on a substantial input of materials. At the moment our energy supply is almost completely based on fossil fuels with minor contributions of biomass and uranium... Show moreHuman society has always depended on a substantial input of materials. At the moment our energy supply is almost completely based on fossil fuels with minor contributions of biomass and uranium based nuclear. Climate science tells us that, in order to avoid catastrophic impacts, we need a transition to a low-carbon energy system in the next few decades. This means we will need to build a new energy system almost from scratch including wind turbines, solar cells, carbon capture and storage and a smart supergrid. In this work the material requirements of such a transition are analysed. It is concluded that a substantial upscaling of current mining activities is needed very quickly in order to be able to supply the metals needed for this energy transition Show less
