In cancer imaging, many different modalities are used that each have their specific features, leading to the combined use of different techniques for the detection, staging and treatment evaluation... Show moreIn cancer imaging, many different modalities are used that each have their specific features, leading to the combined use of different techniques for the detection, staging and treatment evaluation of cancer. Optical imaging using near-infrared fluorescence light is a new imaging modality that has recently emerged in the field of cancer imaging. After extensive preclinical research, the first steps of translation to the clinical practice are currently being made. In this article, we discuss the preclinical and clinical results of near-infrared optical imaging for non-invasive detection and classification of tumors, therapy monitoring, sentinel lymph node procedures, and image-guided cancer surgery. Widespread availability of imaging systems and optical contrast agents will enable larger studies on their clinical benefit and can help establish a definitive role in clinical practice. Show less
Hutteman, M.; Vorst, J.R. van der; Mieog, J.S.D.; Bonsing, B.A.; Hartgrink, H.H.; Kuppen, P.J.K.; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2011
Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping in breast cancer requires optimized imaging systems and lymphatic tracers. A small, portable version of the FLARE imaging system,... Show moreNear-infrared (NIR) fluorescent sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping in breast cancer requires optimized imaging systems and lymphatic tracers. A small, portable version of the FLARE imaging system, termed Mini-FLARE, was developed for capturing color video and two semi-independent channels of NIR fluorescence (700 and 800 nm) in real time. Initial optimization of lymphatic tracer dose was performed using 35-kg Yorkshire pigs and a 6-patient pilot clinical trial. More refined optimization was performed in 24 consecutive breast cancer patients. All patients received the standard of care using (99m)Technetium-nanocolloid and patent blue. In addition, 1.6 ml of indocyanine green adsorbed to human serum albumin (ICG:HSA) was injected directly after patent blue at the same location. Patients were allocated to 1 of 8 escalating ICG:HSA concentration groups from 50 to 1000 mu M. The Mini-FLARE system was positioned easily in the operating room and could be used up to 13 in. from the patient. Mini-FLARE enabled visualization of lymphatic channels and SLNs in all patients. A total of 35 SLNs (mean = 1.45, range 1-3) were detected: 35 radioactive (100%), 30 blue (86%), and 35 NIR fluorescent (100%). Contrast agent quenching at the injection site and dilution within lymphatic channels were major contributors to signal strength of the SLN. Optimal injection dose of ICG:HSA ranged between 400 and 800 mu M. No adverse reactions were observed. We describe the clinical translation of a new NIR fluorescence imaging system and define the optimal ICG:HSA dose range for SLN mapping in breast cancer. Show less
Schaafsma, B.E.; Vorst, J.R. van der; Hutteman, M.; Verbeek, F.P.R.; Mieog, J.S.D.; Liefers, G.J.; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2011
Optical imaging using near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence provides new prospects for general and oncologic surgery. ICG is currently utilised in NIR fluorescence cancer-related surgery for three... Show moreOptical imaging using near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence provides new prospects for general and oncologic surgery. ICG is currently utilised in NIR fluorescence cancer-related surgery for three indications: sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping, intraoperative identification of solid tumours, and angiography during reconstructive surgery. Therefore, understanding its advantages and limitations is of significant importance. Although non-targeted and non-conjugatable, ICG appears to be laying the foundation for more widespread use of NIR fluorescence-guided surgery. Show less
This thesis focuses on the use of near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging during (cancer) surgery, using specialized intraoperative imaging systems. This technique is validated in preclinical... Show moreThis thesis focuses on the use of near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging during (cancer) surgery, using specialized intraoperative imaging systems. This technique is validated in preclinical studies on intraoperative tumor identification and image-guided resection, and and then translated to clinical studies using clinically available agents. Using experimental, tumor-specific NIR fluorescent agents (probes), tumors could successfully be identified during surgery and subsequently resected under image guidance, in several tumor models. Also, the clinically available indocyanine green (ICG) could be used to identify colorectal liver metastases during surgery, in an experimental model. Clinically, NIR fluorescence imaging could be used to identify sentinel lymph nodes (SLN, the lymph nodes that drain directly from a tumor and are most likely to contain tumor cells if metastasis has occurred). SLNs could be identified after ICG injection in breast cancer, vulvar cancer and cervical cancer. SLNs could also be identified ex vivo in colorectal cancer, after HSA800, an optimized experimental probe that was injected in freshly resected specimens. After intravenous ICG injection, NIR angiography could be performed in patients undergoing breast reconstructive surgery, bile ducts could be identified intraoperatively in patients undergoing pancreaticoduodenectomy, and colorectal liver metastases could be identified in patients undergoing liver surgery. Show less
Schaafsma, B.E.; Mieog, J.S.D.; Hutteman, M.; Vorst, J.R. van der; Kuppen, P.J.K.; Lowik, C.W.G.M.; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2011
Tumor involvement of resection margins is found in a large proportion of patients who undergo breast-conserving surgery. Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging is an experimental technique to... Show moreTumor involvement of resection margins is found in a large proportion of patients who undergo breast-conserving surgery. Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging is an experimental technique to visualize cancer cells during surgery. To determine the accuracy of real-time NIR fluorescence imaging in obtaining tumor-free resection margins, a protease-activatable NIR fluorescence probe and an intraoperative camera system were used in the EMR86 orthotopic syngeneic breast cancer rat model. Influence of concentration, timing and number of tumor cells were tested in the MCR86 rat breast cancer cell line. These variables were significantly associated with NIR fluorescence probe activation. Dosing and tumor size were also significantly associated with fluorescence intensity in the EMR86 rat model, whereas time of imaging was not. Real-time NIR fluorescence guidance of tumor resection resulted in a complete resection of 17 out of 17 tumors with minimal excision of normal healthy tissue (mean minimum and a mean maximum tumor-free margin of 0.2 +/- A 0.2 mm and 1.3 +/- A 0.6 mm, respectively). Moreover, the technique enabled identification of remnant tumor tissue in the surgical cavity. Histological analysis revealed that the NIR fluorescence signal was highest at the invasive tumor border and in the stromal compartment of the tumor. In conclusion, NIR fluorescence detection of breast tumor margins was successful in a rat model. This study suggests that clinical introduction of intraoperative NIR fluorescence imaging has the potential to increase the number of complete tumor resections in breast cancer patients undergoing breast-conserving surgery. Show less
Hutteman, M.; Mieog, J.S.D.; Vorst, J.R. van der; Liefers, G.J.; Putter, H.; Lowik, C.W.G.M.; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2011
Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging has the potential to improve sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping in breast cancer. Indocyanine green (ICG) is currently the only clinically available... Show moreNear-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging has the potential to improve sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping in breast cancer. Indocyanine green (ICG) is currently the only clinically available fluorophore that can be used for SLN mapping. Preclinically, ICG adsorbed to human serum albumin (ICG:HSA) improves its performance as a lymphatic tracer in some anatomical sites. The benefit of ICG:HSA for SLN mapping of breast cancer has not yet been assessed in a clinical trial. We performed a double-blind, randomized study to determine if ICG:HSA has advantages over ICG alone. The primary endpoint was the fluorescence brightness, defined as the signal-to-background ratio (SBR), of identified SLNs. Clinical trial subjects were 18 consecutive breast cancer patients scheduled to undergo SLN biopsy. All patients received standard of care using (99m)Technetium-nanocolloid and patent blue. Patients were randomly assigned to receive 1.6 ml of 500 mu M ICG:HSA or ICG that was injected periareolarly directly after patent blue. The Mini-Fluorescence-Assisted Resection and Exploration (Mini-FLARE) imaging system was used for NIR fluorescence detection and quantitation. SLN mapping was successful in all patients. Patient, tumor, and treatment characteristics were equally distributed over the treatment groups. No significant difference was found in SBR between the ICG:HSA group and the ICG alone group (8.4 vs. 11.3, respectively, P = 0.18). In both groups, the average number of detected SLNs was 1.4 +/- A 0.5 SLNs per patient (P = 0.74). This study shows that there is no direct benefit of premixing ICG with HSA prior to injection for SLN mapping in breast cancer patients, thereby reducing the cost and complexity of the procedure. With these optimized parameters that eliminate the necessity of HSA, larger trials can now be performed to determine patient benefit. Show less
Aim: Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence optical imaging is a promising technique to assess the extent of colorectal metastases during curative-intended surgery. However, NIR fluorescence imaging of... Show moreAim: Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence optical imaging is a promising technique to assess the extent of colorectal metastases during curative-intended surgery. However, NIR fluorescence imaging of liver metastases is highly challenging due to hepatic uptake and clearance of many fluorescent dyes. In the current study, the biodistribution and the ability to demarcate liver and peritoneal metastases were assessed during surgery in a syngeneic rat model of colorectal cancer using an integrin alpha(v)beta(3)-directed NIR fluorescence probe. Methods: Liver tumors and peritoneal metastases were induced in 7 male WAG/Rij rats by subcapsular inoculation of 0.5 x 10(6) CC531 colorectal cancer rat cells into three distinct liver lobes. Intraoperative and ex vivo fluorescence. measurements were performed 24 (N = 3 rats, 7 tumors) and 48 h (N = 4 rats, 9 tumors) after intravenous administration of the integrin alpha(v)beta(3)-directed NIR fluorescence probe. Results: Colorectal metastases had a minimal two-fold higher NIR fluorescence signal than healthy liver tissue and other abdominal organs (p < 0.001). The tumor-to-background ratio was independent of time of imaging (24 h vs. 48 h post-injection; p = 0.31), which facilitates flexible operation planning in future clinical applications. Total fluorescence intensity was significantly correlated with the size of metastases (R-2 = 0.92 for the 24 h group, R-2 = 0.96 for the 48 h group). Conclusion: These results demonstrate that colorectal intra-abdominal metastases can be clearly demarcated during surgery using an integrin alpha(v)beta(3) targeting NIR fluorescence probe. Translating these findings to the clinic will have an excellent potential to substantially improve the quality of cancer surgery. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Show less
Vorst, J.R. van der; Hutteman, M.; Mieog, J.S.D.; Rooij, K.E. de; Kaijzel, E.L.; Lowik, C.W.G.M.; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2011
BACKGROUND: Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging using indocyanine green (ICG) is a promising technique to obtain real-time assessment of the extent and number of colorectal liver metastases... Show moreBACKGROUND: Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging using indocyanine green (ICG) is a promising technique to obtain real-time assessment of the extent and number of colorectal liver metastases during surgery. The current study aims to optimize dosage and timing of ICG administration. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Liver tumors were induced in 18 male WAG/Rij rats by subcapsular inoculation of CC531 rat colorectal cancer cells into three distinct liver lobes. Rats were divided in two groups: imaging after 24 and 48 h or 72 and 96 h after intravenous ICG administration. In each time group, rats were allocated to three dose groups: 0.04, 0.08, or 0.16 mg ICG. Intraoperative imaging and ex vivo measurements were performed using the Mini-FLARE imaging system and confirmed by fluorescence microscopy. Fluorescence intensity was quantified using the Mini-FLARE software and the difference between tumor signal and liver signal (tumor-to-liver ratio; TLR) was calculated. RESULTS: In all 18 rats, all colorectal liver metastases (n = 34), some as small as 1.2 mm, were identified using ICG and the Mini-FLARE imaging system. Average tumor-to-liver ratio (TLR) over all groups was 3.0 ± 1.2. TLR was significantly higher in the 72 h time group compared with other time points. ICG dose did not significantly influence TLR, but a trend was found favoring the 0.08 mg dose group. Fluorescence microscopy demonstrated a clear fluorescent rim around the tumor. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that colorectal cancer liver metastases can be clearly identified during surgery using ICG and the Mini-FLARE imaging system, with optimal timing of 72 h post-injection and an optimal dose of 0.08 mg (0.25 mg/kg) ICG. NIR fluorescence imaging has the potential to improve intraoperative detection of micrometastases and, thus, the completeness of resection. Show less
Hutteman, M.; Mieog, J.S.D.; Vorst, J.R. van der; Dijkstra, J.; Kuppen, P.J.K.; Laan, A.M.A. van der; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2011
AIM: Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence optical imaging is a promising technique to assess the extent of colorectal metastases during curative-intended surgery. However, NIR fluorescence imaging of... Show moreAIM: Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence optical imaging is a promising technique to assess the extent of colorectal metastases during curative-intended surgery. However, NIR fluorescence imaging of liver metastases is highly challenging due to hepatic uptake and clearance of many fluorescent dyes. In the current study, the biodistribution and the ability to demarcate liver and peritoneal metastases were assessed during surgery in a syngeneic rat model of colorectal cancer using an integrin α(v)β(3)-directed NIR fluorescence probe. METHODS: Liver tumors and peritoneal metastases were induced in 7 male WAG/Rij rats by subcapsular inoculation of 0.5 × 10(6) CC531 colorectal cancer rat cells into three distinct liver lobes. Intraoperative and ex vivo fluorescence measurements were performed 24 (N = 3 rats, 7 tumors) and 48 h (N = 4 rats, 9 tumors) after intravenous administration of the integrin α(v)β(3)-directed NIR fluorescence probe. RESULTS: Colorectal metastases had a minimal two-fold higher NIR fluorescence signal than healthy liver tissue and other abdominal organs (p < 0.001). The tumor-to-background ratio was independent of time of imaging (24 h vs. 48 h post-injection; p = 0.31), which facilitates flexible operation planning in future clinical applications. Total fluorescence intensity was significantly correlated with the size of metastases (R(2) = 0.92 for the 24 h group, R(2) = 0.96 for the 48 h group). CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that colorectal intra-abdominal metastases can be clearly demarcated during surgery using an integrin α(v)β(3) targeting NIR fluorescence probe. Translating these findings to the clinic will have an excellent potential to substantially improve the quality of cancer surgery. Show less
Hutteman, M.; Choi, H.S.; Mieog, J.S.D.; Vorst, J.R. van der; Ashitate, Y.; Kuppen, P.J.K.; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2010
BACKGROUND: Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping in colorectal cancer may have prognostic and therapeutic significance; however, currently available techniques are not optimal. We hypothesized that... Show moreBACKGROUND: Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping in colorectal cancer may have prognostic and therapeutic significance; however, currently available techniques are not optimal. We hypothesized that the combination of invisible near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent light and ex vivo injection could solve remaining problems of SLN mapping in colorectal cancer. METHODS: The FLARE imaging system was used for real-time identification of SLNs after injection of the NIR lymphatic tracer HSA800 in the colon and rectum of (n = 4) pigs. A total of 32 SLN mappings were performed in vivo and ex vivo after oncologic resection using an identical injection technique. Guided by these results, SLN mappings were performed in ex vivo tissue specimens of 24 consecutive colorectal cancer patients undergoing resection. RESULTS: Lymph flow could be followed in real-time from the injection site to the SLN using NIR fluorescence. In pigs, the SLN was identified in 32 of 32 (100%) of SLN mappings under both in vivo and ex vivo conditions. Clinically, SLNs were identified in all patients (n = 24) using the ex vivo strategy within 5 min after injection of fluorescent tracer. Also, 9 patients showed lymph node involvement (N1 disease). In 1 patient, a 3-mm mesenteric metastasis was found adjacent to a tumor-negative SLN. CONCLUSIONS: The current pilot study shows proof of principle that ex vivo NIR fluorescence-guided SLN mapping can provide high-sensitivity, rapid, and accurate identification of SLNs in colon and rectum. This creates an experimental platform to test optimized, non-FDA-approved NIR fluorescent lymphatic tracers in a clinical setting. Show less
Mieog, J.S.D.; Vahrmeijer, A.L.; Hutteman, M.; Vorst, J.R. van der; Hooff, M.D. van; Dijkstra, J.; ... ; Lowik, C.W.G.M. 2010
Current methods of intraoperative tumor margin detection using palpation and visual inspection frequently result in incomplete resections, which is an important problem in surgical oncology.... Show moreCurrent methods of intraoperative tumor margin detection using palpation and visual inspection frequently result in incomplete resections, which is an important problem in surgical oncology. Therefore, real-time visualization of cancer cells is needed to increase the number of patients with a complete tumor resection. For this purpose, near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging is a promising technique. Here we describe a novel, handheld, intraoperative NIRF camera system equipped with a 690 nm laser; we validated its utility in detecting and guiding resection of cancer tissues in two syngeneic rat models. The camera system was calibrated using an activated cathepsin-sensing probe (Pro Sense, VisEn Medical, Woburn, MA). Fluorescence intensity was strongly correlated with increased activated-probe concentration (R-2 = .997). During the intraoperative experiments, a camera exposure time of 10 ms was used, which provided the optimal tumor to background ratio. Primary mammary tumors (n = 20 tumors) were successfully resected under direct fluorescence guidance. The tumor to background ratio was 2.34 using ProSense680 at 10 ms camera exposure time. The background fluorescence of abdominal organs, in particular liver and kidney, was high, thereby limiting the ability to detect peritoneal metastases with cathepsin-sensing probes in these regions. In conclusion, we demonstrated the technical performance of this new camera system and its intraoperative utility in guiding resection of tumors. Show less
Mieog, J.S.D.; Schaafsma, B.E.; Hutteman, M.; Velde, C.J.H. van de; Que, I.; Mol, I.M.; ... ; Vahrmeijer, A.L. 2010
