The aim of this study is to further contribute to the ongoing debate regarding the nature of “morphosyntactic lifespan change,” defined here as observable shifts in the grammatical choices... Show moreThe aim of this study is to further contribute to the ongoing debate regarding the nature of “morphosyntactic lifespan change,” defined here as observable shifts in the grammatical choices individuals make between competing morphosyntactic structures. Through a quantitative case study of competition between two types of ing-nominals in seventeenth-century English, in which we factor in the grammatical contexts in which the variant structures can be used, we show that individuals vary in the extent to which they participate in the contextual diffusion of a new structure. We furthermore show that there is interindividual variability with respect to whether and what kind of lifespan change—frequency, constraint, and inventory change—is attested and highlight different patterns of intraindividual change: progressive, retrograde, and “mixed.” Show less
The term ‘meaning’, as it is presently employed in Linguistics, is a polysemous concept, covering a broad range of operational definitions. Focussing on two of these definitions, meaning as ... Show moreThe term ‘meaning’, as it is presently employed in Linguistics, is a polysemous concept, covering a broad range of operational definitions. Focussing on two of these definitions, meaning as ‘concept’ and meaning as ‘context’ (also known as ‘distributional semantics’), this paper explores to what extent these operational definitions lead to converging conclusions regarding the number and nature of distinct senses a polysemous form covers. More specifically, it investigates whether the sense network that emerges from the principled polysemy model of over as proposed by Tyler & Evans (2003; 2001) can be reconstructed by the neural language model BERT. The study assesses whether the contextual information encoded in BERT embeddings can be employed to succesfully (i) recognize the abstract sense categories and (ii) replicate the relative distances between the senses of over proposed in the principled polysemy model. The results suggest that, while there is partial convergence, the two models ultimately lead to different global abstractions because the imagistic information that plays a key role in conceptual approaches to prepositional meaning may not be encoded in contextualized word embeddings. Show less
This squib briefly explores how contextualized embeddings – which are a type of compressed token-based semantic vectors – can be used as semantic retrieval and annotation tools for corpus-based... Show moreThis squib briefly explores how contextualized embeddings – which are a type of compressed token-based semantic vectors – can be used as semantic retrieval and annotation tools for corpus-based research into constructions. Focusing on embeddings created by the Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformer model, also known as ‘BERT’, this squib demonstrates how contextualized embeddings can help counter two types of retrieval inefficiency scenarios that may arise with purely form-based corpus queries. In the first scenario, the formal query yields a large number of hits, which contain a reasonable number of relevant examples that can be labeled and used as input for a sense disambiguation classifier. In the second scenario, the contextualized embeddings of exemplary tokens are used to retrieve more relevant examples in a large, unlabeled dataset. As a case study, this squib focuses on the INTO-INTEREST construction (e.g. I’m so into you). Show less
Karsdorp, F.; Manjavacas, E.; Fonteyn, L.; Kestemont, M. 2020
A fundamental problem in research into language and cultural change is the difficulty of distinguishing processes of stochastic drift (also known as neutral evolution) from processes that are... Show moreA fundamental problem in research into language and cultural change is the difficulty of distinguishing processes of stochastic drift (also known as neutral evolution) from processes that are subject to selection pressures. In this article, we describe a new technique based on deep neural networks, in which we reformulate the detection of evolutionary forces in cultural change as a binary classification task. Using residual networks for time series trained on artificially generated samples of cultural change, we demonstrate that this technique is able to efficiently, accurately and consistently learn which aspects of the time series are distinctive for drift and selection, respectively. We compare the model with a recently proposed statistical test, the Frequency Increment Test, and show that the neural time series classification system provides a possible solution to some of the key problems associated with this test. Show less
The aim of this short paper is to extend the application of embedding-based methodologies beyondthe realm of lexical semantic change. It focuses on the use of unsupervised BERT-embeddings... Show moreThe aim of this short paper is to extend the application of embedding-based methodologies beyondthe realm of lexical semantic change. It focuses on the use of unsupervised BERT-embeddings anduncertainty measures (Classification Entropy), and assesses whether (and how) they can be usedto (semi-)automatically flag possible functional-semantic changes in the use of the construction [BEabout] in the Corpus of Historical American English (COHA). Show less
This study investigates the extent to which there is individuality in how structural variation is conditioned over time. Earlier research already classified the diachronically unstable gerund... Show moreThis study investigates the extent to which there is individuality in how structural variation is conditioned over time. Earlier research already classified the diachronically unstable gerund variation as involving a high fraction of mixed-usage speakers throughout the change, whereby the proportion of the conservative variant versus the progressive variant as observable in the linguistic output of individual language users superficially resembles the mean proportion as observable at the population level. However, this study sets out to show that there can still be heterogeneity within such a centralized population in terms of how each individual conditions the observed variation. A random forest and conditional inference tree analysis of over 14,000 gerunds uttered by nineteen seventeenth-century authors is presented to show that, while the most important language-internal factors conditioning the gerund variation are adopted by (and shared between) all authors, we can still attest inter-individual variation (i) at lower levels of variable importance, and (ii) in the breadth of the range of contexts individual authors employ to condition the attested variation. Show less
In this interdisciplinary study, we explore the understudied effects of growing cultural entrenchment on the form of stories with a long reproduction history. Drawing on insight from literary... Show moreIn this interdisciplinary study, we explore the understudied effects of growing cultural entrenchment on the form of stories with a long reproduction history. Drawing on insight from literary theory, theoretical linguistics, and cultural evolution theory, we argue that changes in the cultural entrenchment of fairy tales and folk stories are reflected in (small) structural ‘mutations’ in the story. More specifically, we aim to show that with the increasing familiarity of “Little Red Riding Hood”, its story frame and characters have gradually become part of the author and audience’s shared world knowledge, which is encoded in the type of linguistic devices used to introduce the characters. To this end, we performed a Bayesian logistic regression analysis on a diachronic collection (late 18th century–2015) of the world’s most iconic fairy tale, using automatically generated time estimations for a subset of undated reproductions in the story lineage, and including these estimates and approximated measurement errors in the statistical model. Results show that there is indeed a marked increase of linguistic markers that indicate that the characters are already known or “accessible” to the audience. This development reflects the author’s changing intuitions and beliefs about the familiarity of the story, and, indirectly, the changing expectations of the story’s audience regarding the appearance of certain characters in the story frame. Notably, this study is the first to quantitatively describe the diachronic development of a story (and the concepts associated with it) into the realm of ‘shared knowledge’, showing that it is a slow and gradual process. The results help refine our understanding of cultural evolution as well as the workings of speaker-addressee dynamics. Conceptualising the observed linguistic mutations as an instance of guided variation, we argue that the increase of definite first mentions as a function of cultural entrenchment can be treated as an example of variation guided by pragmatic principles such as Grice’s Maxim of Quantity, making character introductions as informative as (and not more informative than) required. Show less
In this response article, I will challenge some of the claims presented by Iordăchioaia & Werner by suggesting that English ing-nominals were not entirely prevented from completing the ‘cycle of... Show moreIn this response article, I will challenge some of the claims presented by Iordăchioaia & Werner by suggesting that English ing-nominals were not entirely prevented from completing the ‘cycle of categorial shift’, and questioning the actual impact of the competition with Romance derived nominals on the development of ing-nominals with event denotation (i.e. nominal gerunds). The response is based on a detailed corpus-based analysis of Penn corpora of Modern English (PPCEME & PPCMBE, time span: 1500–1920), and consists of three components: (i) a summary of a recent study by Fonteyn and Hartmann (2016), in which it is argued that many nominal ing-forms did complete the full nominalization cycle from eventive to concrete object meanings, (ii) a more fine-grained aspectual-semantic analysis of eventive ing-nominals (or nominal gerunds), and (iii) a detailed comparison between ing-nominals and Romance derived nominals in -age, -al, -ance, -ion, and -ment, mapping out the areas of overlap and the effect of competition on the semantic development of the different nominalization strategies. In the conclusion, it is argued that the intriguingly versatile usage profile of English ing-nominals in Modern English is shaped by a constant diachronic interaction with their neighbouring constructions. Show less
This book presents the first serious attempt to set out a functional-semantic definition of diachronic transcategorial shift between the major classes noun/nominal and verb/clause. In English,... Show moreThis book presents the first serious attempt to set out a functional-semantic definition of diachronic transcategorial shift between the major classes noun/nominal and verb/clause. In English, speakers have different options to refer to an event, ranging from that-clauses (That he had guessed her size) over infinitives (For him to guess her size) and verbal gerunds (Him guessing her size) to nominal gerunds (His guessing of her size) and deverbal nouns (His guess of her size). Interestingly, not only do these strategies each resemble "prototypical" nominals to varying extents, but also some of these strategies increasingly resemble clauses and decreasingly resemble prototypical nominals over time, as if they are gradually shifting categories. Thus far, the literature that has dealt with such cases of diachronic categorial shift has mainly described the processes by focusing on form, leaving us with a clear picture of what and how changes have occurred. Yet, the question of why these formal changes have occurred is still shrouded in mystery. In this book, Lauren Fonteyn tackles this mystery by showing that the diachronic processes of nominalization and verbalization can also involve functional-semantic changes in two steps. First, building on functionalist and cognitive models of grammar, she offers a theoretical model of categoriality that allows us to study diachronic nominalization and verbalization not just as morphosyntactic but also as functional-semantic processes. Second, she offers more concrete, "workable" definitions of the abstract functional-semantic properties of the nominal and verbal/clausal class, which are subsequently applied to one of the most intriguing deverbal nominalization systems in the history of English: the English gerund. Show less
This study present a corpus-based comparison of two aspectual-sematic classification models proposed in theoretical literature (unidimensional vs. bidimensional) by applying them to a set of... Show moreThis study present a corpus-based comparison of two aspectual-sematic classification models proposed in theoretical literature (unidimensional vs. bidimensional) by applying them to a set of nominal and verbal gerunds from the Modern English period. It (i) summarises the differences between unidimensional and bidimensional classification models and (ii) the potential problems associated with them. Despite the difficulties of studying semantic aspect in Present-day as well as historical data, this study will argue that, (iii) at least for deverbal nominalization patterns, it is possible to take a bidimensional approach and maintain a clear distinction between, on the one hand, aspect features of the nominalized situation (stativity/dynamicity, durativity/punctuality, and telicity/atelicity), and temporal boundedness of that situation. The question of which semantic classification model to use, then, is not so much one of which one is practically feasible in a corpus analysis, but rather which one is best suited to describe the attested variation. In order to determine the best model (in terms of parsimony and descriptive accuracy), (iv) the models were compared by means of ‘akaike weights’. To describe the variation between nominal and verbal gerunds in Early and Late Modern English, the bidimensional model outperformed the unidimensional one, showing that (v) the aspectual-semantic distinctions between Modern English nominal and verbal gerunds are a matter of both aspect and temporal boundedness. Show less
Smet, H. de; D'Hoedt, F.; Fonteyn, L.; Goethem, K. van 2018
The relation between functionally similar forms is often described in terms of competition. This leads to the expectation that over time only one form can survive (substitution) or each form must... Show moreThe relation between functionally similar forms is often described in terms of competition. This leads to the expectation that over time only one form can survive (substitution) or each form must find its unique niche in functional space (differentiation). However, competition cannot easily explain what causes functional overlap or how form-function mappings will be reorganized. It is argued here that the changes which competing forms undergo are steered by various analogical forces. As a result of analo-gy, competing forms often show attraction, becoming functionally more (instead of less) alike. Attrac-tion can maintain and increase functional overlap in language. At the same time, competing forms are analogically anchored to a broader constructional network. Cases of differentiation typically follow from the relations in that network. Evidence is drawn from the literature and from three corpus-based case studies, addressing attraction and differentiation in English aspectual constructions, English sec-ondary predicate constructions, and in a pair of Dutch degree modifiers. Evidence is provided of a phe-nomenon competition-based accounts could not predict (attraction), and a solution is offered for one they could not very well explain (differentiation). More generally it is shown that the development of competing forms must be understood against their broader grammatical context. Show less
The present study is an in-depth, corpus-based analysis of the rise and institutionalization of the indefinite nominal gerund in Late Modern English, considering the observed developments in light... Show moreThe present study is an in-depth, corpus-based analysis of the rise and institutionalization of the indefinite nominal gerund in Late Modern English, considering the observed developments in light of their interactions with functionally related constructions. Based on historical data taken from the Corpus of Late Modern English Texts (version 3.1), we argue that the rise of indefinite nominal gerunds constitutes an instance of diachronic nominalization, in which the nominal gerund over time gradually comes to exploit a fuller range of paradigmatic properties associated with the nominal class. At the same time, this study investigates the potential influence of isomorphism on the observed developments. While the results do support the frequently investigated claim that language systems have a (weak) preference for a one-form-one-meaning organization in later stages of their development, the initial emergence of indefinite nominal gerunds can more accurately be explained by allowing system pressure as an enabling force of linguistic innovation. The picture presented in this study serves as evidence that the long-term development of linguistic constructions can be the result of competing – even maximally opposite – forces. Show less
This paper illustrates how different methodological approaches can be combined to reveal complex patterns of constructional variation and change in the diachronic development of English ing-nominal... Show moreThis paper illustrates how different methodological approaches can be combined to reveal complex patterns of constructional variation and change in the diachronic development of English ing-nominals. More specifically, we argue that approaching the data from a schema-based (rather than morpheme-based) perspective shows that nominal gerunds in English, from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, have undergone a semantic drift towards more “nouny” construal variants. This hypothesis is supported not only by raw frequency counts, but also by association measures and by a detailed analysis of hapax legomena. Show less
