Prior studies have highlighted adolescence as a period of increased risk-taking, which is postulated to result from an overactive reward system in the brain. Longitudinal studies are pivotal for... Show morePrior studies have highlighted adolescence as a period of increased risk-taking, which is postulated to result from an overactive reward system in the brain. Longitudinal studies are pivotal for testing these brain-behavior relations because individual slopes are more sensitive for detecting change. The aim of the current study was twofold: (1) to test patterns of age-related change (i.e., linear, quadratic, and cubic) in activity in the nucleus accumbens, a key reward region in the brain, in relation to change in puberty (self-report and testosterone levels), laboratory risk-taking and self-reported risk-taking tendency; and (2) to test whether individual differences in pubertal development and risk-taking behavior were contributors to longitudinal change in nucleus accumbens activity. We included 299 human participants at the first time point and 254 participants at the second time point, ranging between ages 8–27 years, time points were separated by a 2 year interval. Neural responses to rewards, pubertal development (self-report and testosterone levels), laboratory risk-taking (balloon analog risk task; BART), and self-reported risk-taking tendency (Behavior Inhibition System/Behavior Activation System questionnaire) were collected at both time points. The longitudinal analyses confirmed the quadratic age pattern for nucleus accumbens activity to rewards (peaking in adolescence), and the same quadratic pattern was found for laboratory risk-taking (BART). Nucleus accumbens activity change was further related to change in testosterone and self-reported reward-sensitivity (BAS Drive). Thus, this longitudinal analysis provides new insight in risk-taking and reward sensitivity in adolescence: (1) confirming an adolescent peak in nucleus accumbens activity, and (2) underlining a critical role for pubertal hormones and individual differences in risk-taking tendency. Show less
Alcohol consumption is one of the most problematic and widespread forms of risk taking in adolescence. It has been hypothesized that sex hormones such as testosterone play an important role in risk... Show moreAlcohol consumption is one of the most problematic and widespread forms of risk taking in adolescence. It has been hypothesized that sex hormones such as testosterone play an important role in risk taking by influencing the development of brain networks involved in emotion and motivation, particularly the amygdala and its functional connections. Connectivity between the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) may be specifically related to alcohol use, given the association of this tract with top-down control over behavioral approach tendencies.In line with this, prior studies in adults indicate a link between alcohol use and functional connectivity between the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), as well as between testosterone and amygdala–OFC connectivity. We consolidated these research lines by investigating the association between alcohol use, testosterone and resting state functional brain connectivity within one large-scale adolescent sample (n = 173, aged 12–25 years). Mediation analyses demonstrated an indirect effect of testosterone levels on alcohol use through amygdala–OFC intrinsic functional connectivity, but only in boys. That is, increased testosterone in boys was associated with reduced amygdala–OFC connectivity, which in turn was associated with increased alcohol intake. This study is the first to demonstrate the interplay between adolescent alcohol use, sex hormones and brain mechanisms, thus taking an important step to increase our understanding of the mechanisms behind this form of adolescent risk-taking. Show less
Brain imaging studies have demonstrated widespread changes in brain networks which support cognitive and social-affective development. These conclusions, however, are largely based on cross... Show moreBrain imaging studies have demonstrated widespread changes in brain networks which support cognitive and social-affective development. These conclusions, however, are largely based on cross-sectional comparisons, which limits the possibility to investigate growth trajectories and detect individual changes. Understanding individual growth patterns is crucial if we want to ultimately understand how brain development is sensitive to environmental influences such as educational or psychological interventions or childhood maltreatment. Recently, longitudinal brain imaging studies in children and adolescents have taken the first steps into examining cognitive and social-affective brain functions longitudinally with several compelling findings. First, longitudinal measurements show that activations in some brain regions, such as the prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortex, are relatively stable over time and can be used as predictors for cognitive functions, whereas activations in other brain regions, such as the amygdala and ventral striatum, are much more variable over time. Second, developmental studies reveal how these changes are related to age, puberty, and changes in performance. These findings have implications for understanding how environmental factors influence brain development. An important future direction will be to examine individual characteristics (e.g., genetic, temperamental, personality) which make individuals differentially susceptible to their environment. Show less
Meuwese, R.; Crone, E.A.; De Rooij, M.; Güroğlu, B. 2015
The aim of the current study was to examine the development of equity preferences across adolescence, for boys and girls separately. Participants from 8 to 18 years old (M =14.09 years; N =1,216)... Show moreThe aim of the current study was to examine the development of equity preferences across adolescence, for boys and girls separately. Participants from 8 to 18 years old (M =14.09 years; N =1,216) played four economic allocation games. Analyses revealed a decrease in equity preferences with age and this decrease was stronger for boys than for girls. There was also an age-related increase in the preference for efficient outcomes (i.e., maximization of total available resources), which was again stronger for boys than for girls. Overall, although equity remains as a strong social norm, adolescents are decreasingly strict in adhering to the equity norm and show increasing flexibility in equity preferences. Show less
Bos, W. van den; Vahl, P.; Guroglu, B.; Nunspeet, F. van; Colins, O.; Markus, M.; ... ; Crone, E.A. 2014
Children who have experienced chronic parental rejection and exclusion during childhood, as is the case in childhood emotional maltreatment, may become especially sensitive to social exclusion.... Show moreChildren who have experienced chronic parental rejection and exclusion during childhood, as is the case in childhood emotional maltreatment, may become especially sensitive to social exclusion. This study investigated the neural and emotional responses to social exclusion (with the Cyberball task) in young adults reporting childhood emotional maltreatment. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we investigated brain responses and self-reported distress to social exclusion in 46 young adult patients and healthy controls (mean age = 19.2 +/- 2.16) reporting low to extreme childhood emotional maltreatment. Consistent with prior studies, social exclusion was associated with activity in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex. In addition, severity of childhood emotional maltreatment was positively associated with increased dorsal medial prefrontal cortex responsivity to social exclusion. The dorsal medial prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in self-and other-referential processing, suggesting that the more individuals have been rejected and maltreated in childhood, the more self-and other-processing is elicited by social exclusion in adulthood. Negative self-referential thinking, in itself, enhances cognitive vulnerability for the development of psychiatric disorders. Therefore, our findings may underlie the emotional and behavioural difficulties that have been reported in adults reporting childhood emotional maltreatment. Show less
Functions that rely on dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortex, including working memory manipulation, are among the latest functions to mature. Yet, several behavioral studies have shown that... Show moreFunctions that rely on dorsolateral prefrontal and parietal cortex, including working memory manipulation, are among the latest functions to mature. Yet, several behavioral studies have shown that children may improve on these functions after extensive practice. In this pilot study, we examined whether children would be able to demonstrate increased frontoparietal brain activation after practice. Twelve-year-old children and young adults practiced for 6 weeks with a working memory manipulation task. Before and after practice, functional magnetic resonance imaging data were acquired. Both children and adults demonstrated better performance, lasting at least up to 6 months after the practice period. Before practice, children showed immature frontoparietal activation for manipulation of information in working memory relative to pure maintenance, specifically during the delay period of the task. After practice, the activation differences between children and adults were considerably reduced, suggesting that children may show increased frontoparietal activation if given extensive practice. These preliminary findings argue against the hypothesis that certain brain structures cannot be engaged because of immaturity. Yet, future studies with larger samples should further examine flexibility in the developing brain, and establish what can and cannot be expected of children across school-aged development. Show less
Jolles, D.D.; Buchem, M.A. van; Rombouts, S.A.R.B.; Crone, E.A. 2012
