Context. Water is a key probe of shocks and outflows from young stars because it is extremely sensitive to both the physical conditions associated with the interaction of supersonic outflows with... Show moreContext. Water is a key probe of shocks and outflows from young stars because it is extremely sensitive to both the physical conditions associated with the interaction of supersonic outflows with the ambient medium and the chemical processes at play. Aims: Our goal is to investigate the spatial and velocity distribution of H$_{2}$O along outflows, its relationship with other tracers, and its abundance variations. In particular, this study focuses on the outflow driven by the low-mass protostar L1448-C, which previous observations have shown to be one of the brightest H$_{2}$O emitters among the class 0 outflows. Methods: To this end, maps of the o-H$_{2}$O 1$_{10}$-1$_{01}$ and 2$_{12}$-1$_{01}$ transitions taken with the Herschel-HIFI and PACS instruments, respectively, are presented. For comparison, complementary maps of the CO(3-2) and SiO(8-7) transitions, obtained at the JCMT, and the H$_{2}$ S(0) and S(1) transitions, taken from the literature, were used as well. Physical conditions and H$_{2}$O column densities were inferred using large velocity gradient radiative transfer calculations. Results: The water distribution appears to be clumpy, with individual peaks corresponding to shock spots along the outflow. The bulk of the 557 GHz line is confined to radial velocities in the range {plusmn}10-50 km s$^{-1}$, but extended emission at extreme velocities (up to v$_r$ ~{} 80 km s$^{-1}$) is detected and is associated with the L1448-C extreme high-velocity (EHV) jet. The H$_{2}$O 1$_{10}$-1$_{01}$/CO(3-2) ratio shows strong variations as a function of velocity that likely reflect different and changing physical conditions in the gas that is responsible for the emissions from the two species. In the EHV jet, a low H$_{2}$O/SiO abundance ratio is inferred, which could indicate molecular formation from dust-free gas directly ejected from the proto-stellar wind. The ratio between the two observed H$_{2}$O lines and the comparison with H$_{2}$ indicate averaged T$_{kin}$ and n(H$_{2}$) values of ~{}300-500 K and 5 { imes} 10$^{6}$ cm$^{-3}$, respectively, while a water abundance with respect to H$_{2}$ of about 0.5-1 { imes} 10$^{-6}$ along the outflow is estimated, in agreement with results found by previous studies. The fairly constant conditions found all along the outflow imply that evolutionary effects on the timescales of outflow propagation do not play a major role in the H$_{2}$O chemistry. Conclusions: The results of our analysis show that the bulk of the observed H$_{2}$O lines comes from post-shocked regions where the gas, after being heated to high temperatures, has already been cooled down to a few hundred K. The relatively low derived abundances, however, call for some mechanism that diminishes the H$_{2}$O gas in the post-shock region. Among the possible scenarios, we favor H$_{2}$O photodissociation, which requires the superposition of a low-velocity nondissociative shock with a fast dissociative shock able to produce a far-ultraviolet field of sufficient strength. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.org Show less
Nisini, B.; Santangelo, G.; Antoniucci, S.; Benedettini, M.; Codella, C.; Giannini, T.; ... ; Dishoeck, E.F. van 2013
Context. Water is a key probe of shocks and outflows from young stars because it is extremely sensitive to both the physical conditions associated with the interaction of supersonic outflows with... Show moreContext. Water is a key probe of shocks and outflows from young stars because it is extremely sensitive to both the physical conditions associated with the interaction of supersonic outflows with the ambient medium and the chemical processes at play. Aims: Our goal is to investigate the spatial and velocity distribution of H$_{2}$O along outflows, its relationship with other tracers, and its abundance variations. In particular, this study focuses on the outflow driven by the low-mass protostar L1448-C, which previous observations have shown to be one of the brightest H$_{2}$O emitters among the class 0 outflows. Methods: To this end, maps of the o-H$_{2}$O 1$_{10}$-1$_{01}$ and 2$_{12}$-1$_{01}$ transitions taken with the Herschel-HIFI and PACS instruments, respectively, are presented. For comparison, complementary maps of the CO(3-2) and SiO(8-7) transitions, obtained at the JCMT, and the H$_{2}$ S(0) and S(1) transitions, taken from the literature, were used as well. Physical conditions and H$_{2}$O column densities were inferred using large velocity gradient radiative transfer calculations. Results: The water distribution appears to be clumpy, with individual peaks corresponding to shock spots along the outflow. The bulk of the 557 GHz line is confined to radial velocities in the range {plusmn}10-50 km s$^{-1}$, but extended emission at extreme velocities (up to v$_r$ ~{} 80 km s$^{-1}$) is detected and is associated with the L1448-C extreme high-velocity (EHV) jet. The H$_{2}$O 1$_{10}$-1$_{01}$/CO(3-2) ratio shows strong variations as a function of velocity that likely reflect different and changing physical conditions in the gas that is responsible for the emissions from the two species. In the EHV jet, a low H$_{2}$O/SiO abundance ratio is inferred, which could indicate molecular formation from dust-free gas directly ejected from the proto-stellar wind. The ratio between the two observed H$_{2}$O lines and the comparison with H$_{2}$ indicate averaged T$_{kin}$ and n(H$_{2}$) values of ~{}300-500 K and 5 { imes} 10$^{6}$ cm$^{-3}$, respectively, while a water abundance with respect to H$_{2}$ of about 0.5-1 { imes} 10$^{-6}$ along the outflow is estimated, in agreement with results found by previous studies. The fairly constant conditions found all along the outflow imply that evolutionary effects on the timescales of outflow propagation do not play a major role in the H$_{2}$O chemistry. Conclusions: The results of our analysis show that the bulk of the observed H$_{2}$O lines comes from post-shocked regions where the gas, after being heated to high temperatures, has already been cooled down to a few hundred K. The relatively low derived abundances, however, call for some mechanism that diminishes the H$_{2}$O gas in the post-shock region. Among the possible scenarios, we favor H$_{2}$O photodissociation, which requires the superposition of a low-velocity nondissociative shock with a fast dissociative shock able to produce a far-ultraviolet field of sufficient strength. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
Aims: In the framework of the Water In Star-forming regions with Herschel (WISH) key program, several H$_{2}$O (E$_u$ {gt} 190 K), high-J CO, [Oi], and OH transitions are mapped with Herschel... Show moreAims: In the framework of the Water In Star-forming regions with Herschel (WISH) key program, several H$_{2}$O (E$_u$ {gt} 190 K), high-J CO, [Oi], and OH transitions are mapped with Herschel-PACS in two shock positions along two prototypical outflows around the low-luminosity sources L1448 and L1157. Previous Herschel-HIFI H$_{2}$O observations (E$_u$ = 53-249 K) are also used. The aim is to derive a complete picture of the excitation conditions at the selected shock positions. Methods: We adopted a large velocity gradient analysis (LVG) to derive the physical parameters of the H$_{2}$O and CO emitting gas. Complementary Spitzer mid-IR H$_{2}$ data were used to derive the H$_{2}$O abundance. Results: Consistent with other studies, at all selected shock spots a close spatial association between H$_{2}$O, mid-IR H$_{2}$, and high-J CO emission is found, whereas the low-J CO emission traces either entrained ambient gas or a remnant of an older shock. The excitation analysis, conducted in detail at the L1448-B2 position, suggests that a two-component model is needed to reproduce the H$_{2}$O, CO, and mid-IR H$_{2}$ lines: an extended warm component (T ~{} 450 K) is traced by the H$_{2}$O emission with E$_u$ = 53-137 K and by the CO lines up to J = 22-21, and a compact hot component (T = 1100 K) is traced by the H$_{2}$O emission with E$_u$ {gt} 190 K and by the higher-J CO transitions. At L1448-B2 we obtain an H$_{2}$O abundance (3-4) { imes} 10$^{-6}$ for the warm component and (0.3-1.3) { imes} 10$^{-5}$ for the hot component and a CO abundance of a few 10$^{-5}$ in both components. In L1448-B2 we also detect OH and blue-shifted [Oi] emission, spatially coincident with the other molecular lines and with [Feii] emission. This suggests a dissociative shock for these species, related to the embedded atomic jet. On the other hand, a non-dissociative shock at the point of impact of the jet on the cloud is responsible for the H$_{2}$O and CO emission. The other examined shock positions show an H$_{2}$O excitation similar to L1448-B2, but a slightly higher H$_{2}$O abundance (a factor of ~{}4). Conclusions: The two gas components may represent a gas stratification in the post-shock region. The extended and low-abundance warm component traces the post-shocked gas that has already cooled down to a few hundred Kelvin, whereas the compact and possibly higher-abundance hot component is associated with the gas that is currently undergoing a shock episode. This hot gas component is more affected by evolutionary effects on the timescales of the outflow propagation, which explains the observed H$_{2}$O abundance variations. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.Appendix A is available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
Context. The measure of the water deuterium fractionation is a relevant tool for understanding mechanisms of water formation and evolution from the prestellar phase to the formation of planets and... Show moreContext. The measure of the water deuterium fractionation is a relevant tool for understanding mechanisms of water formation and evolution from the prestellar phase to the formation of planets and comets. Aims: The aim of this paper is to study deuterated water in the solar-type protostars NGC 1333 IRAS 4A and IRAS 4B, to compare their HDO abundance distributions with other star-forming regions, and to constrain their HDO/H$_{2}$O abundance ratios. Methods: Using the Herschel/HIFI instrument as well as ground-based telescopes, we observed several HDO lines covering a large excitation range (E$_{up}$/k = 22-168 K) towards these protostars and an outflow position. Non-local thermal equilibrium radiative transfer codes were then used to determine the HDO abundance profiles in these sources. Results: The HDO fundamental line profiles show a very broad component, tracing the molecular outflows, in addition to a narrower emission component and a narrow absorbing component. In the protostellar envelope of NGC 1333 IRAS 4A, the HDO inner (T {ge} 100 K) and outer (T {lt} 100 K) abundances with respect to H$_{2}$ are estimated with a 3{$σ$} uncertainty at 7.5$_{-3.0}$$^{+3.5}$ { imes} 10$^{-9}$ and 1.2$_{-0.4}$$^{+0.4}$ { imes} 10$^{-11}$, respectively, whereas in NGC 1333 IRAS 4B they are 1$_{-0.9}$$^{+1.8}$ { imes} 10$^{-8}$ and 1.2$_{-0.4}$$^{+0.6}$ { imes} 10$^{-10}$, respectively. Similarly to the low-mass protostar IRAS 16293-2422, an absorbing outer layer with an enhanced abundance of deuterated water is required to reproduce the absorbing components seen in the fundamental lines at 465 and 894 GHz in both sources. This water-rich layer is probably extended enough to encompass the two sources, as well as parts of the outflows. In the outflows emanating from NGC 1333 IRAS 4A, the HDO column density is estimated at about (2-4) { imes} 10$^{13}$ cm$^{-2}$, leading to an abundance of about (0.7-1.9) { imes} 10$^{-9}$. An HDO/H$_{2}$O ratio between 7 { imes} 10$^{-4}$ and 9 { imes} 10$^{-2}$ is also derived in the outflows. In the warm inner regions of these two sources, we estimate the HDO/H$_{2}$O ratios at about 1 { imes} 10$^{-4}$-4 { imes} 10$^{-3}$. This ratio seems higher (a few %) in the cold envelope of IRAS 4A, whose possible origin is discussed in relation to formation processes of HDO and H$_{2}$O. Conclusions: In low-mass protostars, the HDO outer abundances range in a small interval, between ~{}10$^{-11}$ and a few 10$^{-10}$. No clear trends are found between the HDO abundance and various source parameters (L$_{bol}$, L$_{smm}$, L$_{smm}$/L$_{bol}$, T$_{bol}$, L$_{bol}$$^{0.6}$/M$_{env}$). A tentative correlation is observed, however, between the ratio of the inner and outer abundances with the submillimeter luminosity. Based on observations carried out with the Herschel/HIFI instrument, the Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM) 30 m Telescope, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT), and one of the ESO telescopes at the La Silla Paranal, the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX, programme ID 090.C-0239). Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA. IRAM is supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany), and IGN (Spain). The JCMT is operated by the Joint Astronomy Centre on behalf of the Science and Technology Facilities Council of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, and the National Research Council of Canada. APEX is a collaboration between the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie, the ESO, and the Onsala Space Observatory.Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
