The drift sand area near Hilversum, the Netherlands, holds a geo-archive with multiple drift sand phases and intercalated palaeosols. We studied this area to test earlier theories on the... Show moreThe drift sand area near Hilversum, the Netherlands, holds a geo-archive with multiple drift sand phases and intercalated palaeosols. We studied this area to test earlier theories on the development of podzols in such aeolian sands, the occurrence of sand drifting, and the contemporary vegetation development, and to gain insight into the early human impacts on these fragile ecosystems. Based on OSL and radiocarbon datings, palaeoecological studies, and soil chemical analyses, the age and origin of the drift sand phases and palaeosols were established. Sand drifting started around 6000 BCE (Late Mesolithic), the drift sand covering a distinct podzol in the Younger Cover Sand II. A second Late Mesolithic drift sand phase dated from ca. 4900–4500 BCE. Three later drift sand phases were distinguished of which the last is the classic Late Medieval (and younger) phase, while the first two date from the Neolithic. All intercalated palaeosols exhibited more or less prominent podzolisation. The palaeocological data showed that, prior to the Neolithic, in the forest open patches had developed with nonarboreal vegetation, dominated by Poaceae and Ericaceae. This changed during the Neolithic, most probably linked to the introduction of crop farming, the vegetation gradually acquiring the characteristics of the classic heathland with patches of trees/shrubs. The early sand drifting, podzolisation and opening of the forest are attributed to Mesolithic land use, with intentional burning as major factor. We conclude that the local destruction of the deciduous forests by fire and associated creation of open patches with bare sand were essential for the early sand drifting and podzolisation to occur. The results shed new light on the origin of drift sands, heathlands, and podzols in the Netherlands, and on the environmental impacts of Mesolithic people, and testify to the fundamental instability of these dry inland dune ecosystems. Show less
The Zerqa Triangle in Jordan is a steppe zone with low annual precipitation and high potential evaporation. The region is not suited to dry farming, at least not on a reliable scale. This applies... Show moreThe Zerqa Triangle in Jordan is a steppe zone with low annual precipitation and high potential evaporation. The region is not suited to dry farming, at least not on a reliable scale. This applies not only to the present, but also to a long stretch of the past. From c. 2300 BCE onwards, the climate was comparable, with the exception of a number of short wetter intervals. The prevailing assumption is that from the Late Bronze Age onwards the inhabitants of the Zerqa Triangle subsisted on products from irrigated land. A means to test the validity of this assumption is to measure the Δ13C value of their crops. This figure offers insight into the water availability during the growth of the plants. Barley crops from three sites in the Zerqa Triangle with dates from 1100 BCE to CE 1225 were analysed. The grain was grown during periods with dry climatic conditions. The outcome is that the barley fields were not well-watered, but were not as dry as the present-day rainfed fields in dry south-west Morocco (Styring et al., 2016) or the runoff fed fields in tributary wadis in the Negev Desert (Van Bommel et al., 2021). It might be that truly rainfed fields were cultivated in addition to irrigated fields and gardens during the successive periods. That irrigation systems existed is known (Kaptijn, 2009). An alternative is the combination of crop raising based on precipitation with some boosts from irrigation. Anyhow, the assumption that crops could only be obtained through a well-functioning irrigation system should be questioned. Show less
The extent of vegetation openness in past European landscapes is widely debated. In particular, the temperate forest biome has traditionally been defined as dense, closed-canopy forest; however,... Show moreThe extent of vegetation openness in past European landscapes is widely debated. In particular, the temperate forest biome has traditionally been defined as dense, closed-canopy forest; however, some argue that large herbivores maintained greater openness or even wood-pasture conditions. Here, we address this question for the Last Interglacial period (129,000–116,000 years ago), before Homo sapiens–linked megafauna declines and anthropogenic landscape transformation. We applied the vegetation reconstruction method REVEALS to 96 Last Interglacial pollen records. We found that light woodland and open vegetation represented, on average, more than 50% cover during this period. The degree of openness was highly variable and only partially linked to climatic factors, indicating the importance of natural disturbance regimes. Our results show that the temperate forest biome was historically heterogeneous rather than uniformly dense, which is consistent with the dependency of much of contemporary European biodiversity on open vegetation and light woodland. Show less
Sevink, J.; Haas, T.C.A. de; Alessandri, L.; Bakels, C.C.; Mario, F. di 2023
The Pontine Marshes (Central Italy) are known for their long drainage history starting early in Roman times and culminating in their reclamation (bonifica integrale) by the Fascist’s regime under... Show moreThe Pontine Marshes (Central Italy) are known for their long drainage history starting early in Roman times and culminating in their reclamation (bonifica integrale) by the Fascist’s regime under Mussolini, mostly in the 1930s of past century. The geology of this coastal wetland and causes for its drainage problems received limited attention till recently. We reviewed results from recent studies, identified still existing knowledge gaps and performed additional research to fill these, to produce a full description of the Holocene history and drainage of these marshes. Massive coring data that served to map the soils and surficial geology, observations in archaeological excavations, analytical data on soil and sediment characteristics, and radiocarbon datings allowed us to distinguish several phases in this history, with a main break in the early Roman Republican period with the first systematic drainage works. Earlier, natural processes brought about by sea level rise largely controlled its drainage. Once artificial drainage started, soil subsidence became an important process, aggravating the drainage problems. The bonifica introduced mechanical drainage, temporarily masking the impacts of subsidence. We quantified the historical subsidence using DTMs and developed scenarios for the impacts of sea level rise and subsidence in 2100 and 2200, assuming that this rise will be mitigated by a coastal defence system and enhanced capacity of the mechanical drainage. Our results demonstrate the important role of soil subsidence throughout the history of this wetland and need to include subsidence in scenarios for the impacts of sea level rise. Show less
Abstract – The loss of diversity in the Dutch arable weed flora due to modern farming methods is considerable and the disappearance of a former rich flora embellishing the fields is much deplored.... Show moreAbstract – The loss of diversity in the Dutch arable weed flora due to modern farming methods is considerable and the disappearance of a former rich flora embellishing the fields is much deplored. It led to the creation of arable flora reserves. But since when were crops accompanied by so many species? This contribution explores the history through time, from the earliest agriculture in the Netherlands, 5300 BC, to relatively relatively modern times. The data originate from archaeological sources, as written texts are not suited to the purpose. Samenvatting – De diversiteit van de Nederlandse akkerflora staat onder druk. De grote rijkdom van vroeger dreigt verloren te gaan. ‘Vroeger’ is echter een relatief begrip. Bij het begin van de akkerbouw in Nederland, 5300 v. Chr., was deze flora veel minder rijk dan in de afgelopen eeuwen. Aan de hand van plantenresten uit opgravingen is gekeken naar verandering in diversiteit sinds het verschijnen van de eerste akkers. Onderzocht zijn de in dit materiaal determineerbare kensoorten van de Stellarietea mediae Tüxen, Lohmeyer et Preising in Tüxen 1950, de Klasse der akkergemeenschappen. De diversiteit neemt in de loop der millennia toe, ook na correctie voor veranderingen in oogstmethoden. De archeologische bronnen betreffen namelijk hoofdzakelijk geoogste producten en oogstafval en deze geven daarom een vertekend beeld van de oorspronkelijke flora. Opvallend is dat de vroegste akkerkruiden de sterkste overlevers blijken te zijn.. Show less
Ilett, M.; Gransar, F.; Allard, P.; Bakels, C.C.; Hachem, L.; Hamon, C.; ... ; Naze, Y. 2022
A preventive excavation undertaken in 2006 in the Aisne valley at Menneville "La Bourguignotte" uncovered some Neolithic features near the edge of the area investigated. These include a longhouse... Show moreA preventive excavation undertaken in 2006 in the Aisne valley at Menneville "La Bourguignotte" uncovered some Neolithic features near the edge of the area investigated. These include a longhouse with its lateral pits, another long pit and two circular pits. Decorated ceramics date the occupation to the Seine basin final Linear Pottery. The flint industry, also typical of this period, is characterized by quite a broad range of raw materials. Sandstone artefacts were mainly used for polishing activities. Although faunal remains are mostly of domestic species, the proportion of wild animals in the assemblage is relatively high. Certain features also produced burnt daub, as well as carbonised plant remains, including cereals, legumes and hazel nut. The excavated features are probably part of a small settlement that was linked in some way to the large neighbouring site of Menneville "Derrière le Village". Show less
The reliability of the frequently cited date of the Avellino eruption of mount Vesuvius and the general problems connected with tephra dating are discussed. Moreover, the possible effect of tephra... Show moreThe reliability of the frequently cited date of the Avellino eruption of mount Vesuvius and the general problems connected with tephra dating are discussed. Moreover, the possible effect of tephra toxicity is mentioned. Show less
The inhabitants of Merovingian Oegstgeest lived on the north bank of one of the most important rivers of Northwest Europe, not far from the North Sea. They built their settlement on the driest spot... Show moreThe inhabitants of Merovingian Oegstgeest lived on the north bank of one of the most important rivers of Northwest Europe, not far from the North Sea. They built their settlement on the driest spot available, but one that was nevertheless not an uninterrupted dry place as it was dissected by gullies and little streams draining the hinterland. Although they lived during centuries characterized by a relatively dry though cold climate, they had to deal with the constant treat of floods. The immediate environment also imposed some restrictions on certain economic activities. Brackish conditions limited the possibility for raising crops. Moreover, the inhabitants might have been short of wood. Show less
The inhabitants of Merovingian Oegstgeest lived in an environment that was mainly suited to keeping livestock, especially cattle and sheep. Barley, flax, and possibly some hemp may have been... Show moreThe inhabitants of Merovingian Oegstgeest lived in an environment that was mainly suited to keeping livestock, especially cattle and sheep. Barley, flax, and possibly some hemp may have been cultivated on drier parts of the landscape, but wheat and possibly also rye were imported from elsewhere. Agricultural weeds suggest more southern, loess-covered areas, such as are found in the German Rhineland, Belgium, and northern France, as possible sources. Besides the staple crops true luxury products were detected i.e. fig, raisin, and walnut. It turns out that the inhabitants of Oegstgeest were not just rural people living off their own territory. They were part of a wider network thatnreached far beyond the nearest neighbours. Show less
The individual found buried semi-cremated during the excavations at Oegstgeest was a young adult male. The combined Sr-O isotope analysis did not provide evidence for a non-local origin, although a... Show moreThe individual found buried semi-cremated during the excavations at Oegstgeest was a young adult male. The combined Sr-O isotope analysis did not provide evidence for a non-local origin, although a place of birth in a different region cannot be excluded. During the first years of his life he suffered from periods of malnutrition and/or illness. At the time of death, he suffered from a disease in the respiratory system that was contracted earlier in life. His burial was intended to be a cremation, perhaps following a bustum ritual. The cremation was not entirely effective. Burial of a semi-cremated body was the result. Show less
Sevink, J.; Bakels, C.C.; Attema, P.; Vito, M. di; Arienzo, I. 2019
Earlier studies on Holocene fills of upland lakes (Lago Forano and Fontana Manca) in northern Calabria, Italy, showed that these hold important palaeoecological archives, which however remained... Show moreEarlier studies on Holocene fills of upland lakes (Lago Forano and Fontana Manca) in northern Calabria, Italy, showed that these hold important palaeoecological archives, which however remained poorly dated. Their time frame is improved by new 14C dates on plant remains from new cores. Existing pollen data are reinterpreted, using this new time frame. Two early forest decline phases are distinguished. The earliest is linked to the 4.2 kyr BP climatic event, when climate became distinctly drier, other than at Lago Trifoglietti on the wetter Tyrrhenian side, where this event is less prominent. The second is attributed to human impacts and linked to Middle Bronze Age mobile pastoralism. At Fontana Manca (c. 1000 m asl) it started around 1700 BC, in the higher uplands a few centuries later (Lago Forano, c. 1500 m asl). In the Fontana Manca fill, a thin tephra layer occurs, which appears to result from the AP2 event (Vesuvius, c. 1700 BC). A third, major degradation phase dates from the Roman period. Land use and its impacts, as inferred from the regional archaeological record for the Raganello catchment, are confronted with the impacts deduced from the palaeo-archives. Show less
This chapter deals with plant remains retrieved during the excavation of traces left by the Bronze, Iron and Roman Age farming societies in Oss-North. Its two parts are not really related except... Show moreThis chapter deals with plant remains retrieved during the excavation of traces left by the Bronze, Iron and Roman Age farming societies in Oss-North. Its two parts are not really related except for the fact that the questions posed are tackled by using archaeobotanical methods. Subchapter 8.1 discusses the vegetation on the farmyards, subchapter 8.2 concerns the crops grown by the farmers. Show less
Earlier studies on Holocene fills of upland lakes (Lago Forano and Fontana Manca) in northern Calabria, Italy, showed that these hold important palaeoecological archives, which however remained... Show moreEarlier studies on Holocene fills of upland lakes (Lago Forano and Fontana Manca) in northern Calabria, Italy, showed that these hold important palaeoecological archives, which however remained poorly dated. Their time frame is improved by new 14C dates on plant remains from new cores. Existing pollen data are reinterpreted, using this new time frame. Two early forest decline phases are distinguished. The earliest is linked to the 4.2 kyr BP climatic event, when climate became distinctly drier, other than at Lago Trifoglietti on the wetter Tyrrhenian side, where this event is less prominent. The second is attributed to human impacts and linked to Middle Bronze Age mobile pastoralism. At Fontana Manca (c. 1000 m asl) it started around 1700 BC, in the higher uplands a few centuries later (Lago Forano, c. 1500 m asl). In the Fontana Manca fill, a thin tephra layer occurs, which appears to result from the AP2 event (Vesuvius, c. 1700 BC). A third, major degradation phase dates from the Roman period. Land use and its impacts, as inferred from the regional archaeological record for the Raganello catchment, are confronted with the impacts deduced from the palaeo-archives. Show less
Cultivation of gold of pleasure (Camelina sativa [L.] Crantz) started in the Netherlands in the Pre-Roman Iron Age, from 800 BC onwards. Its progenitor is Camelina microcarpa DC, a wild plant... Show moreCultivation of gold of pleasure (Camelina sativa [L.] Crantz) started in the Netherlands in the Pre-Roman Iron Age, from 800 BC onwards. Its progenitor is Camelina microcarpa DC, a wild plant native to the steppes of Central Asia and adjacent Eastern Europe. Gold of pleasure is a so-called secondary crop, i.e. a plant that started as a weed and subsequently evolved into an oil crop on its own. Why the crop plant quite suddenly gained importance in the Iron Age is unclear. Unfamiliarity with the plant, climate change and/or a new technical use for its oil, all may have played a role. After the Iron Age cultivation of gold of pleasure decreased, until it recently came into use as biofuel. Show less
Sevink, J.; Bakels, C.C.; Isola, I.; Gorp, W. van; Doorenbosch, M.; Kuijper, W.J.; Zanchetta, G. 2018
A lithoid tuff, found in 2011 (Ricci pit, Agro Pontino, Southern Lazio, Italy), was studied for its composition, origin and palaeogeographical implications. This tuff was the first occurrence of a... Show moreA lithoid tuff, found in 2011 (Ricci pit, Agro Pontino, Southern Lazio, Italy), was studied for its composition, origin and palaeogeographical implications. This tuff was the first occurrence of a Würmian-age tephra layer, encountered in the coastal basins of Southern Lazio. Based on its mineralogy and isotopic composition (Sr and Nd), its stratigraphic position and the pre- and post-depositional soil formation and weathering, it was identified as a distal tephra deposit from the Colli Albani volcano, connected with the Albano 5-7 eruptive stageand dating from 40-36 ka BP. The lithoid tuff consists of tephra that were slightly reworked and subsequently lithified, when this central part of the Agro Pontino graben still consisted of a non-dissected, level lagoonal plain. The study confirms the earlier established importance of this tephra layer as stratigraphic marker for Central Italy, and shows that its distribution is wider than earlier assumed, notably tothe SE of the Colli Albani volcano.Show less
This paper describes an experiment to providebaselines for the δ15N values of prehistoriccereals.Emmer wheat and barley were grown in tubs filledwith two different substrates andplaced in a cage to... Show moreThis paper describes an experiment to providebaselines for the δ15N values of prehistoriccereals.Emmer wheat and barley were grown in tubs filledwith two different substrates andplaced in a cage to protect them from birds andcats. The experiment lasted three years.Values obtained in this way may serve in caseswhere no experimental farms of long standingwith unmanured fields can provide them. The resultsare in line with the values obtained atsuch farms, as well as withvalues presented for ethnographic cases in the literature.. Show less
Stable isotope analysis of charred Bronze Age emmer wheat and barley excavated in the northwest Netherlands reveals high values of δ15N. Cultivation of the same cereal species under controlled... Show moreStable isotope analysis of charred Bronze Age emmer wheat and barley excavated in the northwest Netherlands reveals high values of δ15N. Cultivation of the same cereal species under controlled circumstances on the appropriate substrates provided baselines indicating that the prehistoric cereal fields must have been manured. Reconstruction of the size of the arable fields and livestock suggests that animal dung cannot have been the only source of fertilizer. Application of household waste and mud from ditches is considered as well as a possible effect from burning stubble. Growing of pulses was not practiced and therefore this method of ameliorating the soil has to be left out of the question. The outcome of the study presented here is that the Bronze Age farmers of the northwest Netherlands used several means to maintain the fertility of their arable land and that they may have adapted their strategy according to circumstances. Show less
Summary In the Netherlands spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) is currently marketed as a ’forgotten’ cereal. This article presents the latest views on the origin of spelt and continues with the ... Show moreSummary In the Netherlands spelt wheat (Triticum spelta L.) is currently marketed as a ’forgotten’ cereal. This article presents the latest views on the origin of spelt and continues with the (pre-)history of this cereal in the Netherlands. The earliest occurrence dates to the Late Bronze Age (1100-800 calBC). The cereal gained importance during the pre-Roman Iron Age, but only in the eastern and southern parts of the country (fig. 3A). Its heyday was during the Roman Period, when it appears almost bound to Roman presence along and south of the limes (fig. 3B). During the Early Middle Ages spelt lost importance, but the cereal did not disappear until the late 19th century. In historical times it was mainly used for brewing beer. The straw was sought after for making hats. The conclusion is that the designation as ‘forgotten cereal’ is of recent date. Show less
