Aims: We aim to better understand the heating of gas by observing the prominent gas cooling line [C ii] at 158 {$μ$}m in the low-metallicity environment of the Local Group spiral galaxy M 33 on... Show moreAims: We aim to better understand the heating of gas by observing the prominent gas cooling line [C ii] at 158 {$μ$}m in the low-metallicity environment of the Local Group spiral galaxy M 33 on scales of 280 pc. In particular, we describe the variation of the photoelectric heating efficiency with the galactic environment. Methods: In this study, we present [C ii] observations along the major axis of M 33 using the Infrared Space Observatory in combination with Herschel continuum maps, IRAM 30 m CO 2-1, and VLA H i data to study the variation in velocity integrated intensities. The ratio of [C ii] emission over the far-infrared continuum is used as a proxy for the heating efficiency, and models of photon-dominated regions are used to study the local physical densities, far-ultraviolet radiation fields, and average column densities of the molecular clouds. Results: The heating efficiency stays constant at 0.8% in the inner 4.5 kpc radius of the galaxy, where it increases to reach values of ~{}3% in the outskirts at about a 6 kpc radial distance. The rise of efficiency is explained in the framework of PDR models by lowered volume densities and FUV fields for optical extinctions of only a few magnitudes at constant metallicity. For the significant fraction of H i emission stemming from PDRs and for typical pressures found in the Galactic cold neutral medium (CNM) traced by H i emission, the CNM contributes ~{}15% to the observed [C ii] emission in the inner 2 kpc radius of M 33. The CNM contribution remains largely undetermined in the south, while positions between radial distances of 2 and 7.3 kpc in the north of M 33 show a contribution of ~{}40% {plusmn} 20%. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led PrincipalInvestigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
Relaño, M.; Verley, S.; Pérez, I.; Kramer, C.; Calzetti, D.; Xilouris, E.; ... ; Werf, P.P. van der 2013
Aims: Within the framework of the Herschel M 33 extended survey HerM33es and in combination with multi-wavelength data we study the spectral energy distribution (SED) of a set of H ii regions in... Show moreAims: Within the framework of the Herschel M 33 extended survey HerM33es and in combination with multi-wavelength data we study the spectral energy distribution (SED) of a set of H ii regions in the Local Group galaxy M 33 as a function of the morphology. We analyse the emission distribution in regions with different morphologies and present models to infer the H{$α$} emission measure observed for H ii regions with well defined morphology. Methods: We present a catalogue of 119 H ii regions morphologically classified: 9 filled, 47 mixed, 36 shell, and 27 clear shell H ii regions. For each object we extracted the photometry at twelve available wavelength bands, covering a wide wavelength range from FUV-1516 å (GALEX) to IR-250 {$μ$}m (Herschel), and we obtained the SED for each object. We also obtained emission line profiles in vertical and horizontal directions across the regions to study the location of the stellar, ionised gas, and dust components. We constructed a simple geometrical model for the clear shell regions, whose properties allowed us to infer the electron density of these regions. Results: We find trends for the SEDs related to the morphology of the regions, showing that the star and gas-dust configuration affects the ratios of the emission in different bands. The mixed and filled regions show higher emission at 24 {$μ$}m, corresponding to warm dust, than the shells and clear shells. This could be due to the proximity of the dust to the stellar clusters in the case of filled and mixed regions. The far-IR peak for shells and clear shells seems to be located towards longer wavelengths, indicating that the dust is colder for this type of object. The logarithmic 100 {$μ$}m/70 {$μ$}m ratio for filled and mixed regions remains constant over one order of magnitude in H{$α$} and FUV surface brightness, while the shells and clear shells exhibit a wider range of values of almost two orders of magnitude. We derive dust masses and dust temperatures for each H ii region by fitting the individual SEDs with dust models proposed in the literature. The derived dust mass range is between 10$^{2}$-10$^{4}$ M$_{⊙}$ and the cold dust temperature spans T$_{cold}$ ~{} 12-27 K. The spherical geometrical model proposed for the H{$α$} clear shells is confirmed by the emission profile obtained from the observations and is used to infer the electron density within the envelope: the typical electron density is 0.7 {plusmn} 0.3 cm$^{-3}$, while filled regions can reach values that are two to five times higher. Appendices are available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.orgShow less
