This paper analyses the economic position of female heads of households in Ndala (Tanzania). It explores the differences between female and male-headed households and the survival strategies they... Show moreThis paper analyses the economic position of female heads of households in Ndala (Tanzania). It explores the differences between female and male-headed households and the survival strategies they adopt. It focuses on the household as an economic unit in which agriculture and non-agricultural income-generating projects are important. The acquisition of land, the supply and demand of labour, as well as income generation through agricultural and non-agricultural activities are the main focus of analysis. Fieldwork was conducted in Ndala in 1992-1996 Show less
Drawing on research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden, this paper compares changing... Show moreDrawing on research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden, this paper compares changing economic and social patterns in a wide variety of rural settlements in sub-Saharan Africa. Recently emerged or refashioned income diversification tendencies are highlighted and linked to the blurring of strong rural-urban contrasts. After a schematic consideration of continental trends, followed by a more detailed examination of rural livelihood patterns, the author teases out some of the major tensions embedded in the broad-based reorientation of rural livelihoods, leading to a discussion of how effective current government and donor policies are in addressing this rural transformation. The conclusion returns to the issue of sub-Saharan Africa's 'betwixt-and-between' status (the balancing act of African rural dwellers caught in between farm and nonfarm, family and individual, and rural and urban contrasts), arguing that the uncertainty could be alleviated with a more directional policy approach, an approach that facilitates provisioning of rural households and communities local-level, daily needs, and strengthens public policy, training facilities and infrastructure for future occupational diversification and specialization. Show less
This working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the... Show moreThis working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the Programme was to examine, from a multidisciplinary perspective, the changes in size and significance of the peasant population in sub-Saharan African countries and to draw attention to the new labour patterns and unfolding rural-urban relations now taking place. This paper is based on research in South Africa, namely in Shixini, an Administrative Area which is part of the Jinqi Tribal Authority, located in Willowvale district, former Transkei, in the Eastern Cape. The paper looks at the extent to which agrarian activities are still important within rural areas, or the extent to which agrarian activities are being replaced or supplemented by other economic activities (income diversification). The conclusion is that most of the homesteads in Shixini derive at least part of their livelihood from agricultural activities; that no homestead can survive without some form of cash income (in the form of migrant labour earnings or social and disability pensions); and that very few are able to secure access to cash by selling agricultural products. Show less
This working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of... Show moreThis working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the Programme was to examine, from a multidisciplinary perspective, the changes in size and significance of the peasant population in sub-Saharan African countries and to draw attention to the new labour patterns and unfolding rural-urban relations now taking place. This paper focuses on Nigeria and chronicles the patterns of long-term diversification that are observable in the cocoa farming community of Alade in Idanre Local Government Area of Ondo State. After some historical background information on cocoa cultivation and government policies up to 1970, when Nigeria began to experience its oil boom, it looks at the impact of the oil boom of the 1970s and the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), introduced in 1986, on cocoa farming before turning to the situation of household production and reproduction in the aftermath of SAP, and the internal dynamics of Alade households. Finally, it looks at the extent and trends of diversification of livelihood strategies within the farming community. The conclusion is that SAP has led to a revival of cocoa farming in Nigeria and that farming households have responded to new opportunities opened up to them by adjusting their use of household resources. However, the benefits of this revival have not been evenly spread. Show less
The upsurge in nonagricultural income diversification which has taken place on the African continent during the last fifteen years represents large-scale agrarian labour displacement within an... Show moreThe upsurge in nonagricultural income diversification which has taken place on the African continent during the last fifteen years represents large-scale agrarian labour displacement within an accelerated process of depeasantization. The literature's current preoccupation with market response and prescriptive behaviour based on Western norms and formal economic models clouds perception of what is actually taking place. The confusion begins with limiting the focus to the household as the unit of analysis while tacitly assuming that such households operate within a clearly delineated formal/informal/peasant three-sector economy. One by one, the components of the three-sector model are changing; national economies represent an amalgam of these three sectors into one 'formless' sector. This paper presents colonial and postcolonial perspectives on the African rural labour question, specifically with respect to Tanzania, in order to lend historical depth and sociopolitical dimension to the current focus on income diversification. To ground the analysis, case study observations are presented from four Tanzanian villages: two situated in the Mbeya region and two in Iringa region. The new 'sustainable rural livelihoods' (SRL) approach is a response to the complexity of rural livelihoods and their growing nonagricultural character. Show less
This working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of... Show moreThis working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the Programme was to examine, from a multidisciplinary perspective, the changes in size and significance of the peasant population in sub-Saharan African countries and to draw attention to the new labour patterns and unfolding rural-urban relations now taking place. This paper focuses on South Africa and is concerned with the problem of rural livelihoods against the background of changes which have occurred in South Africa in recent years. It is based on research in Melani village, in the dry interior district of Alice in the former Ciskei, which began in 1996. The paper starts with a description of household structure and income, including pensions, wages, remittances and material benefits derived from informal economic activities as well as the occasional sale of stock and crops. Then it describes various types of rural-urban interaction and interaction between the rural households. The data illustrate the unsatisfactory conditions of rural dwellers who derive either very little or nothing from the land while there are also few employment opportunities locally. Show less
This working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the... Show moreThis working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the Programme was to examine, from a multidisciplinary perspective, the changes in size and significance of the peasant population in sub-Saharan African countries and to draw attention to the new labour patterns and unfolding rural-urban relations now taking place. This paper focuses on Nigeria and is based on research carried out in Nasarawan Doya village, located in northern Kaduna State, northern Nigeria. It considers the changes in the agricultural economy of the village which have influenced the development of the nonfarm sector and the impact of structural adjustment on the development of the nonfarm sector. Next, it examines the role of nonfarm activities in village livelihood strategies, occupational identities, and household welfare strategies. On the whole, agricultural and nonagricultural activities appeared to play a complementary rather than a competitive role in income-generating strategies. By the same token, however, insufficient agricultural income tended to be accompanied by inadequate nonfarm incomes, and vice versa. Show less
This working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the... Show moreThis working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the Programme was to examine, from a multidisciplinary perspective, the changes in size and significance of the peasant population in sub-Saharan African countries and to draw attention to the new labour patterns and unfolding rural-urban relations now taking place. The paper focuses on Nigeria and is based on research carried out in Doma, a settlement in the Middle Belt of Nigeria, from June 1996 to May 1997. It examines trends in agricultural and nonfarm activities, and links between the two subsectors of the rural economy. The data reveal rural income composition and relate it to the existence of social networks, community welfare and the future of agriculture. The conclusion is that indigene rural dwellers are increasingly setting up nonfarm activities. Over 80 percent of incomes earned by wives and females came from nonfarm activities. Given this factor, the main policy objective is to enhance productivity in both farm and nonfarm activities. Show less
This paper proposes a conceptual framework for the systematic linking of theory and empiricism in a transnational perspective accommodating the local, the national and the international... Show moreThis paper proposes a conceptual framework for the systematic linking of theory and empiricism in a transnational perspective accommodating the local, the national and the international simultaneously. The argument expands the narrow State-centred approach of Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz in 'Africa works: disorder as political instrument' (1999), replacing a linear understanding of the global historical trajectory with a nonlinear understanding, and distinguishing between the nature of industrial and reflexive modernity (or First and Second Modernity), and between active and passive trust. The African continent entered the Second Modernity with the beginning of the slave trade; the West did so in the 1960s. Conceptualizations of the individual, the relation of the individual to society, and the nature of power relations are remarkably similar in the Second Modernity and Pre-Modern societies. The concept 'triple chevauchement' permits analysis of the overlapping logics and realities of the "three (coexisting) modernities". Contrary to Chabal and Daloz, whose suggestion that the African postcolonial cultural order constitutes a distinct universe legitimates noncommunication between Africa and the West, the present author's global, long-term historical and reflexive interpretation highlights the similarities between Africa and the West and underlines the need for dialogue. Effective communication will enable a coming to terms with the long common history of domination and opportunistic defence, and may be the ultimate condition for Africa's inclusion in the emerging global economy of knowledge. Show less
This working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of... Show moreThis working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the Programme was to examine, from a multidisciplinary perspective, the changes in size and significance of the peasant population in sub-Saharan African countries and to draw attention to the new labour patterns and unfolding rural-urban relations now taking place. This paper focuses on Nigeria, and is based on research carried out in the village of Osumenyi in Nnewi South (Igboland), in southeastern Nigeria. It considers aspects of farm and nonfarm activities: the role and trend of farming activities and output, patterns of migration, incomes from nonfarm activities and other sources, the role of social networks, the role of infrastructure and community development, and linkages between nonfarm activities and agriculture. The conclusion is that nonfarm income far outweighs agricultural income. The Nigerian government, still under the impression that rural development is synonymous with agricultural development, should encourage areas with increasing land shortage, increasing populations and poor agricultural resources to diversify their incomes as a matter of priority. Show less
This working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the... Show moreThis working paper provides research findings emanating from the De-Agrarianisation and Rural Employment (DARE) Research Programme, coordinated by the African Studies Centre, Leiden. The aim of the Programme was to examine, from a multidisciplinary perspective, the changes in size and significance of the peasant population in sub-Saharan African countries and to draw attention to the new labour patterns and unfolding rural-urban relations now taking place. This paper focuses on Nigeria and is based on research carried out in Gigane village in the Sokoto close-settled zone, northwest Nigeria, from July 1996 to June 1997. The objective of the research was to investigate trends in income diversification, the relationship between farm and nonfarm activities, the major constraints to nonfarm activities, and the gender factor in income diversification. The conclusion is that the income generated from nonfarm activities is small, making it very difficult to improve the livelihood of those concerned. At best, for most households nonfarm activities have provided a means of survival in spite of their low agricultural returns. Show less
This paper presents the findings of a field study carried out in two villages (Kyimo and Ngonga) in Rungwe and Kyela districts of Mbeya region in 1995. These districts, located in southwestern... Show moreThis paper presents the findings of a field study carried out in two villages (Kyimo and Ngonga) in Rungwe and Kyela districts of Mbeya region in 1995. These districts, located in southwestern Tanzania near to the Malawian and Zambian borders, have long been recognized for their great agricultural potential. Now, however, rural population densities have reached critical levels and villagers are experimenting with various non-agricultural activities alongside their agricultural work. The main objectives of the study were to examine the changing features of household control over resources such as land, labour and capital and to document the evolution of non-agricultural labour activities. Changing patterns of land and labour allocation between generations within rural households are explored in relation to these themes. Show less
This paper describes urban farming in Nairobi, Kenya: its magnitude and characteristics, its importance for those involved, the constraints faced by urban farmers, the impact of urban farming on... Show moreThis paper describes urban farming in Nairobi, Kenya: its magnitude and characteristics, its importance for those involved, the constraints faced by urban farmers, the impact of urban farming on the environment, the legal and institutional setting, and the prospects for urban farming. The paper is based on four studies carried out in Nairobi by Diana Lee-Smith et al. (1984-1985), Donald Freeman (1987), Alice Mboganie Mwangi (1994), and Pascale Dennery (1994) Show less
For a sizeable portion of Kenya's coastal population food security is not assured. Furthermore, the current food pattern, which relies heavily on maize and cassava, is lacking in dietary quality... Show moreFor a sizeable portion of Kenya's coastal population food security is not assured. Furthermore, the current food pattern, which relies heavily on maize and cassava, is lacking in dietary quality and variety. This results in nutritional problems among the population which are partly hidden, but which surface most clearly among vulnerable groups such as women and children. These problems can be partly prevented by appropriate caring behaviour. This paper, which is partly based on research carried out in the Coastal Region in 1985-1986, describes food habits, food availability and food adequacy in rural households, energy and nutrient intake by food groups and households, and the nutritional status of children. The final sections examine nutrition programmes and interventions in the Kenya Coast area by governmental and nongovernmental organizations Show less
This report presents the findings of research conducted between December 1996 and December 1997 in two villages, Kweminyasa and Lukozi, in Lushoto District, Tanzania, and comprising a general... Show moreThis report presents the findings of research conducted between December 1996 and December 1997 in two villages, Kweminyasa and Lukozi, in Lushoto District, Tanzania, and comprising a general broad survey of individuals to determine the pattern of nonagricultural activities over time, a survey of existing nonagricultural enterprises, a survey of Standard Seven schoolchildren's career expectations and attitudes towards work, and an in-depth survey of career patterns of different generations within selected households. The study found a growing incidence of engagement in nonfarm activities beginning in the 1980s, especially as land became scarcer and returns from agriculture stagnated, increasing outmigration of the youthful male population to other districts in the lowlands and urban areas, and declining circular migration to such large towns as Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Moshi and Arusha. Show less
This report presents the findings of research carried out between December 1996 and December 1997 in two villages (Igosi and Mtwango-Lunguya) in Njombe District, Tanzania. The study is one of four... Show moreThis report presents the findings of research carried out between December 1996 and December 1997 in two villages (Igosi and Mtwango-Lunguya) in Njombe District, Tanzania. The study is one of four regional studies on agricultural and non-agricultural activities and their change over time within Tanzanian villages. As such there was a standardized research methodology that is outlined in the Appendix. It involved a general broad survey of individuals within the selected villages to determine the pattern of non-agricultural activities over time, a survey of existing non-agricultural enterprises within the village, a survey of Standard Seven school children's career expectations and attitudes towards work, and an in-depth survey of career patterns of different generations within selected households. The report is divided into three main sections - background about the study area, village profiles, and survey findings regarding the local economy, agricultural and non-agricultural production, migration patterns, associational ties, social relations between generations and prospects for agricultural development - followed by a conclusion which includes an analytical summary of findings and recommendations arising from the research. Show less
This working paper examines the changing lifestyle in rural Sukumaland, Kwimba District, Tanzania. It shows that farming in Sukumaland constitutes an economic livelihood and a social identity. The... Show moreThis working paper examines the changing lifestyle in rural Sukumaland, Kwimba District, Tanzania. It shows that farming in Sukumaland constitutes an economic livelihood and a social identity. The value of man is in food production and land is distributed at the family level through the traditional land tenure system. However, land has inceasingly become scarce due to population pressure and migration flows of people to other areas are on the increase. Investment is no longer directed at building up livestock and farms which traditionally were a source of pride and prestige. Among youth, investment is largely directed towards better housing and trade rather than to cattle and farming. The attitudes of youth to farming are a clear indicator of the shrinking agricultural sector, at least in terms of investments and labour allocation. Show less
This study examines the extent of deagrarianization in North Shoa, one of the most impoverished regions of Ethiopia. It describes the role and trend of farm activities and output, the trends in... Show moreThis study examines the extent of deagrarianization in North Shoa, one of the most impoverished regions of Ethiopia. It describes the role and trend of farm activities and output, the trends in income diversification and the historical evolution of non-farm activities, and the relationship between farm and non-farm activities with particular focus on the extent to which income diversification is associated with an increase or decrease in agricultural productivity and income. It identifies the major constraints to non-farm activities and suggests a policy framework for their development. It is based on primary survey data collected in North Shoa between February and April 1995. Show less
This paper examines the strategies applied by elite women in Brazzaville, Congo, to achieve lifelong financial security and independence for themselves and their children. Amongst these strategies... Show moreThis paper examines the strategies applied by elite women in Brazzaville, Congo, to achieve lifelong financial security and independence for themselves and their children. Amongst these strategies are a woman's position in the household and women's ways of identifying themselves socially. Women's empowerment has led to specific changes, such as the emergence of the 'deuxième bureau' (unmarried women having an intimate relationship with a married man) among the well educated. New lifestyle patterns emphasize the privatization of the family and promote considerable changes in gender relations, with significant implications for relationships between elite women and the extended family. The women in the study are between 30 and 40 years old and are all civil servants in Brazzavillian government departments. Data were collected during fieldwork in 1989-1990. Show less
The author concentrates on virtuality, which he has come to regard as one of the key concepts for characterizing and understanding the forms of globalization in Africa. Chapters 1 and 2 define... Show moreThe author concentrates on virtuality, which he has come to regard as one of the key concepts for characterizing and understanding the forms of globalization in Africa. Chapters 1 and 2 define virtuality and globalization and provisionally indicate their theoretical relationship. The problematic heritage of an anthropological tradition obsessed with locality provides the analytical framework within which virtuality makes an inspiring topic, as argued in Ch. 3. Ch. 4 offers a transition from theory to empirical case studies by examining the problem of meaning in the African urban environment. Ch. 5 evokes an ethnographic situation (urban puberty rites in present-day Zambia) that illustrates particular forms of virtuality as part of the globalization process. Ch. 6 applies the emerging insights into virtuality and the virtual village to Ren‚ Devisch's notion of villagization as a major process of societal transformation in the Zairian capital, Kinshasa. Ch. 7 explores the applicability of the same concepts to recent patterns of witchcraft and healing as studied, at the national level in Cameroon and Malawi, by Peter Geschiere and Matthew Schoffeleers respectively. The author's own earlier work on the Kazanga festival as an instance of virtuality in the rural context of western central Zambia is summarized in Ch. 8, after which a conclusion rounds off the argument. Show less
