The overarching goal of this dissertation was to investigate parenting processes in relation to affective well-being in families in the daily flow of life from different perspectives (i.e.,... Show moreThe overarching goal of this dissertation was to investigate parenting processes in relation to affective well-being in families in the daily flow of life from different perspectives (i.e., adolescent, mother, father), on different levels (i.e., objective, momentary, and daily), and in a clinical sample (families with an adolescent with a depression) in addition to community samples. Our findings underline the importance of daily parental warmth and criticism of mothers and fathers for adolescents’ well-being. In addition, we showed that adolescents, parents, and their perceptions of parenting influence each other and that becoming more attuned to each other’s intention and needs is essential. Importantly, we consistently demonstrated that not only the extent and direction of the dynamic processes between parenting and affect in daily life differs between, but also within persons and families. This stresses the need for research focusing on individual processes and combining quantitative with qualitative measures. The use of more idiographic approaches would not only enable gaining more insight into these differences between individuals, but also contribute to identifying parenting practices that work for almost all adolescents. This would facilitate the development of interventions combining universal parenting principles with suggestions for tailoring it to individual- or family-specific situations. Show less
This dissertation describes the findings of six studies on mental health problems in the family context, specifically focusing on the associations with the parent-child relationship, parenting... Show moreThis dissertation describes the findings of six studies on mental health problems in the family context, specifically focusing on the associations with the parent-child relationship, parenting behaviors and experiences of childhood maltreatment. The aim is to better understand the risk factors, development and transmission of common psychological problems in order to contribute to prevention and treatment strategies for common psychological problems such as anxiety and depression.Overall, the findings underline the importance of the family context in the development and levels of mental health problems. In addition to the impact of one's own negative parenting experiences, including lack of warmth and experiences of emotional or physical abuse, negative parenting experiences of one's siblings are also associated with elevated anxiety and depressive symptom levels.We also found that externalizing problems of fathers and children have a negative impact on the parent-child interactions. In addition, we found that children with behavioral problems during early adolescence experience harsher parental discipline, even three years later.In the current treatment guidelines for common mental disorders, most therapies focus on the individual. An (additional) systemic approach and considering past and present family relationships in therapy, can be of additional value. For example, supporting families with interventions to improve the parent-child relationship can be helpful in the short and long term. Moreover, (early) treatment of psychological and behavioral problems of the parent or child might be beneficial for all family members. Show less
This dissertation aimed to shed light on the study of attachment theory in areas other than western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD; Henrich et al., 2010) societies that... Show moreThis dissertation aimed to shed light on the study of attachment theory in areas other than western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD; Henrich et al., 2010) societies that dominate the literature. We aimed to describe the extent to which the attachment theory core hypotheses are supported by research in Latin America and specifically in a rural Peruvian Andean area. Show less
The aim of this dissertation was to provide insight in interethnic prejudice of children in the Netherlands and attitudes and ideologies that they are exposed to through two socialization agents:... Show moreThe aim of this dissertation was to provide insight in interethnic prejudice of children in the Netherlands and attitudes and ideologies that they are exposed to through two socialization agents: parents and children’s books. Specifically attitudes and ideologies based on intergroup contact theories and diversity ideologies were of interest. This dissertation is a first step in examining the basis for applying prejudice-reducing theories based on social learning theory to the specific multi-ethnic Dutch context. Overall, results show that interethnic prejudice is found in various forms among young children in the Netherlands. Furthermore, intergroup contact approaches to improve children’s interethnic attitudes may face some obstacles, as results show that parents might be more or less willing to facilitate interethnic contact with different ethnic groups, intergroup contact effects are not always found, and ethnic diversity and thus indirect contact opportunities in popular books for children are somewhat limited. Furthermore, results show that multiculturalist rather than colorblind diversity approaches can benefit interethnic attitudes of children in dominant ethnic groups, but that the latter are prevailing in popular children’s books. This dissertation can help move both research and the development of practical programs on improving interethnic attitudes among children in the Netherlands forward. Show less
Self-regulation refers to the ability to deliberately control one’s affect and behavior to meet certain standards such as customs, norms and social expectations, and to pursue long-term goals (Kopp... Show moreSelf-regulation refers to the ability to deliberately control one’s affect and behavior to meet certain standards such as customs, norms and social expectations, and to pursue long-term goals (Kopp, 1982). Problems with self-regulation can result in significant personal as well as social problems such as substance addiction (e.g., drugs, alcohol and cigarettes), health problems (e.g., obesity and eating disorders), violence and crime (e.g., Baumeister et al., 2015; Hirschi, 2004; Johnson et al., 2012). Self-regulation emerges in early infancy and increases dramatically in later infancy and toddlerhood. This process has been described as the development from external regulation depending on caregivers to independent self-regulation (Calkins, 2002). During this transition, both infant factors (e.g., infant attention) and social factors (e.g., parental behaviors) contribute to the development of self-regulation (e.g., Bernier et al., 2010; Miyake et al., 2000). As mother-infant and father-infant relationships provide different experiences for infants, the parental impact on self-regulation may also differ between mothers and fathers (e.g., Braungart‐Rieker et al., 1998; Feldman et al., 2003). Yet, most parenting and infant research has focused on mothers, whereas fathers – and other family members with a caregiving role – are rarely investigated. Moreover, empirical studies of parenting and infant development have largely been restricted to North America and Western Europe (e.g., Bornstein, 2015; Tomlinson et al., 2014). As some evidence shows that the association between parental behaviors and the process of infant development is dependent on country and the associated cultural context (e.g., Deater- Deckard et al., 2011; Landford et al., 2016), it is also important to carry out research in non-Western countries to understand the generalizability of theories built in Western contexts and primarily rooted in Western tradition to non-Western populations. China—a non-Western country—has the world’s largest population, with traditions of multigenerational co-residence (including grandparents). However, few empirical studies have focused on grandparenting, parenting and child development. The current dissertation longitudinally investigated the parental role in infant self-regulation during the first two years of life in the Netherlands and China, and also specifically focused on the role of grandparents in China. Show less
Ample research has shown that more household chaos is related to lower parenting quality, but it is yet unknown whether this is a causal relation. This dissertation focuses on two research... Show moreAmple research has shown that more household chaos is related to lower parenting quality, but it is yet unknown whether this is a causal relation. This dissertation focuses on two research questions. The first is whether household chaos has a causal effect on parenting. The second is whether the effect of household chaos on parenting is stronger for parents with certain characteristics, such as high sensory-processing sensitivity (SPS), low self-regulation, and more impulsivity. Two experimental studies were conducted in which household chaos was manipulated. The results show that household chaos affects both positive and negative parenting, but only in demanding parenting situations. Moderation by impulsivity was not found and moderation by SPS and by self-regulation was inconsistent. Regarding SPS, this may exacerbate the effect of household chaos on parenting in case of extreme differences between or high levels of household chaos. Regarding self-regulation, parents with low self-regulation may not have enough self-regulation capacities to simultaneously lower their levels of household chaos and refrain from harsh discipline. These results form a promising vantagepoint for further research, which could eventually lead to prevention and intervention programs to improve parenting by reducing household chaos. Show less
This dissertation aimed to contribute to the quality of foster care addressing three main objectives: The first objective was to investigate if existing parenting interventions are effective in... Show moreThis dissertation aimed to contribute to the quality of foster care addressing three main objectives: The first objective was to investigate if existing parenting interventions are effective in supporting/improving parenting and child outcomes in foster care using a meta-analytic approach. The second objective was to study the effectiveness of an adapted version of Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) for foster care, i.e., VIPP-FC. The implementation of VIPP-SD in different types of families and in childcare settings was first reviewed, with special attention to VIPP-FC. Subsequently, the study protocol of the randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigating the effectiveness of VIPP-FC was described. In addition, the results of this RCT regarding the effectiveness of VIPP-FC on parenting behavior and attitudes were presented. The third objective was to examine correlates of indiscriminate friendliness (IF) displayed by foster children. To answer this question, the relations of attachment security, parental sensitivity, and child inhibitory control with IF were examined using data collected during the pretest of the VIPP-FC RCT. Results are described and discussed in different chapters, and implications for clinical practice and recommendations for future research are additionally provided. Show less
The aim of this thesis is to increase our knowledge of individual differences in the neural processing and appraisal of children’s faces that differ in their degree of resemblance with the... Show moreThe aim of this thesis is to increase our knowledge of individual differences in the neural processing and appraisal of children’s faces that differ in their degree of resemblance with the participant’s face. Chapter 2 focuses on participants’ neural responses to child faces that differ in their degree of resemblance with the participant’s face, both in neutral and threatening contexts. Moderating effects of love withdrawal and empathy are examined to explore associations between participants’ experiences with love withdrawal, their levels of empathy and their neural processing of facial resemblance. In Chapter 3, we examine how participants’ evaluations of the different child faces on a range of negative and positive criteria are affected by children’s degree of resemblance with the participant’s face. In addition, we explore how experiences of love withdrawal and FFA activity moderate participants’ appraisal of these child faces. Chapter 4 focuses on the test-retest reliability of the fMRI data acquired during the face processing paradigm we used to examine the effects of facial resemblance on participants’ brain activity. Show less
To thrive as an individual and within society, children need to master the ability to control their behavior and adapt it to social rules and standards. They also need to acquire the social... Show moreTo thrive as an individual and within society, children need to master the ability to control their behavior and adapt it to social rules and standards. They also need to acquire the social competence to interact and communicate with others. Studies showing the relevance of behavioral control and social competence for children’s future development give rise to the search for factors that are associated with these competencies. These factors can be characteristics of the child, factors within the child’s social environment, and factors within the physical and socioeconomic environment. In the current thesis we aimed to identify some of these factors associated with the development of behavioral control in early childhood, and with prosocial behavior in early to mid-adolescence. We assessed four types of behavioral control: parent-reported effortful control, observed cheating behavior, delay of gratification, and response inhibition. For prosocial behavior, one type was assessed: observed compensating behavior towards an excluded peer. The results show that there is quite some variation in children’s level of behavioral control as well as in adolescents’ level of prosocial behavior and that these levels can be related to child characteristics, factors in their social environment, physical, and socioeconomic environment in a meaningful way. Show less
Het terugdringen van agressie is in de afgelopen jaren in toenemende mate een maatschappelijke prioriteit geworden. Agressie in de vroege kindertijd vergroot de kans op latere agressieproblemen en... Show moreHet terugdringen van agressie is in de afgelopen jaren in toenemende mate een maatschappelijke prioriteit geworden. Agressie in de vroege kindertijd vergroot de kans op latere agressieproblemen en antisociaal gedrag. In de peutertijd is er al een groep hoog-agressieve kinderen te identificeren die later in de ontwikkeling meer persistente, ernstigere vormen van agressie laat zien. Belangrijk is om veranderbare factoren te identificeren die samenhangen met het ontstaan en/of de instandhouding van het probleemgedrag. Het ouderlijk reflectief functioneren (RF) is in dat kader een interessant concept, aangezien deze vaardigheid te trainen is. In dit proefschrift is de invloed van het RF-vermogen van moeder op de ontwikkeling van (voorlopers van) gedragsproblemen in de vroege kindertijd, in het bijzonder fysieke agressie, bekeken. Geconcludeerd kan worden dat het RF-vermogen van de moeder een belangrijke rol speelt bij het ontwikkelen van (voorlopers van) gedragsproblemen. Over het algemeen genomen lijkt een beter prenataal RF-vermogen van de moeder samen te hangen met een kleinere kans op het ontwikkelen van vroege fysieke agressie. De bevindingen suggereren dat het bij de preventie en aanpak van vroege gedragsproblemen belangrijk is om te investeren in het verbeteren van het ouderlijk RF, bij voorkeur al tijdens de zwangerschap. Show less
Parenting influences many aspects of child development, including socio-emotional, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes. Yet most studies report only modest effect sizes. An increasingly likely... Show moreParenting influences many aspects of child development, including socio-emotional, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes. Yet most studies report only modest effect sizes. An increasingly likely explanation is that not all children are equally affected by environmental factors, including parenting. The differential susceptibility theory proposes that some children might be more susceptible to both positive and negative environmental influences, compared to other children. Such differences in susceptibility are thought to be due to genetic, temperamental, or physiological susceptibility factors. In the current thesis, we tested the theory of differential susceptibility of children to the effects of parenting in a large population-based cohort, the Generation R Study. Doing so, we went beyond common methods. First, we investigated differential susceptibility from a developmental perspective by including multiple measures over time. Second, we went beyond single-gene/polymorphisms in the investigation of gene-environment interplay by aggregating genetic variation in a set of dopamine genes. Third, we extended previous research on mild perinatal adversity as a susceptibility factor by examining its moderating role in the association between harsh parenting and hair cortisol levels, taking into account background factors that we demonstrated to be of influence on hair cortisol levels. Show less
1887/29813 Sensitivity is defined as a mother's ability to perceive child signals, to interpret these signals correctly, and to respond to them promptly and appropriately (Ainsworth, Bell, &... Show more1887/29813 Sensitivity is defined as a mother's ability to perceive child signals, to interpret these signals correctly, and to respond to them promptly and appropriately (Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton, 1974) The overall aim of this dissertation is to examine beliefs about sensitive parenting and actual sensitive behaviors in Turkish ethnic minority families and factors that are related to sensitive parenting in those families. The results in Chapter 2 show that sensitivity beliefs are highly similar across and within ethnic groups of mothers and youth care professionals in the Netherlands and Turkey. In Chapter 3, the results show that sensitivity beliefs and sensitive parenting behaviors were unrelated in Dutch and Turkish-Dutch mothers. The findings presented in Chapter 4 show that ethnic identity and socialization, and religious identity and socialization are not related to sensitive parenting behaviors of Turkish-Dutch mothers. More positive attitudes toward Islamic socialization were related to lower observed maternal sensitivity. The results presented in this thesis suggest that early childhood parenting interventions focused on enhancing sensitivity might be successful in minority families. Parenting interventions could be helpful to narrow the gap between beliefs and behaviors. Parental religious orientations and belief systems should be investigated more systematically to be able to understand parenting and its effects on child development in ethnic minority families Show less
We examined the development of international adoptees from infancy to young adulthood, and factors influencing developmental outcomes in middle childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. The... Show moreWe examined the development of international adoptees from infancy to young adulthood, and factors influencing developmental outcomes in middle childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. The results for cognitive development (Chapter 2) showed that early malnutrition influenced cognitive and health-related outcomes, but its consequences did not extend to socioeconomic success later in life. The human brain seems capable of adapting to changing environmental influences, but earlier placement in a positive family environment should be preferred (see also Chapter 1). The adoptees in the Leiden Longitudinal Adoption Study were exposed to few adversities due to their early adoptive placement, and the combination with the nurturing environment of a permanent adoptive family resulted in positive cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes (Chapters 2 and 3). Our results for longitudinal (sensitivity) and concurrent relations (reactivity to infant crying) with attachment representations in young adulthood (Chapters 3 and 4) clearly point to this role of the family environment in predicting social-emotional outcomes. High parenting quality is important, also in families where children do not share a common genetic basis with their parents. In sum, adoption can be seen as a positive intervention and the (adoptive) family environment matters for children growing up from infants to young adults. Show less
As infants are fully dependent on their parents, correct perception and interpretation of infant signals is crucial for infant survival. It is therefore not surprising that specific brain circuits... Show moreAs infants are fully dependent on their parents, correct perception and interpretation of infant signals is crucial for infant survival. It is therefore not surprising that specific brain circuits and neuroendocrine processes have evolved to perceive infant signals correctly and to respond adequately. However, parents vary in their ability to respond to their infants in a sensitive way and several factors may be involved in parental sensitive responsiveness. One important factor influencing parenting behavior is the neuropeptide oxytocin. Of all the hormones involved in parenting and other social behaviors, oxytocin has received the most interest, as evidenced by the high number of scientific studies over the past decade (Bos, Panksepp, Bluthé, & Honk, 2012; Van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2012). Many studies suggest that oxytocin is related to sensitive parenting (Bakermans-Kranenburg & Van IJzendoorn, 2008; Feldman, Weller, Zagoory-Sharon, & Levine, 2007), although the exact mechanism underlying this positive association is not entirely clear yet. Another factor that influences parenting behavior is adult state of mind with respect to attachment (Van IJzendoorn, 1995). In the current dissertation, the role of oxytocin and adult attachment in parenting is examined with a series of functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments. Show less
The development of self-regulation is one of the major challenges of a child’s healthy development. In the current thesis, the contribution and interplay of parental and biological factors in... Show moreThe development of self-regulation is one of the major challenges of a child’s healthy development. In the current thesis, the contribution and interplay of parental and biological factors in the development of self-regulation in preschoolers are studied in a large population-based cohort, the Generation R Study. We found that attachment insecurity in infancy was related to higher levels of toddler active resistance during Clean-Up. Maternal negative discipline was related to lower levels of committed compliance in toddlers, and the association between maternal positive discipline and child committed compliance was moderated by the child’s COMT rs4680 genotype, indicating that the association was stronger in children with the Met/Met variant than for children with other COMT genotypes. Maternal family-related stress during pregnancy predicted lower levels of toddler committed compliance through lower levels of maternal positive discipline. Maternal sensitivity was associated with lower levels of executive function problems and lower levels of internalizing problems in preschool age. In children with a relatively short corpus callosum in infancy, higher levels of maternal positive discipline predicted lower levels of inhibition problems. Our studies demonstrate the role of various aspects of positive parenting and mother-child relationship quality in preschool children’s regulation of emotions and behavior. Show less
Wat bepaalt de kwaliteit van gehechtheid? In een grootschalig onderzoek, Generation R, zijn de stresshuishouding en enkele kandidaatgenen van de kinderen onderzocht, en het gedrag van de ouder. De... Show moreWat bepaalt de kwaliteit van gehechtheid? In een grootschalig onderzoek, Generation R, zijn de stresshuishouding en enkele kandidaatgenen van de kinderen onderzocht, en het gedrag van de ouder. De gehechtheidsrelatie is de relatie tussen een kind en een ouder (of andere stabiele verzorger) die in het eerste levensjaar wordt opgebouwd. Veilig gehechte kinderen gebruiken hun ouder als veilige haven van waar ze de omgeving verkennen. Onveilig gehechte kinderen hebben hier moeite mee; zij kunnen niet de juiste balans vinden tussen contact met de ouder en het verkennen van de omgeving. Dit onderzoek laat zien dat onveilig gehechte kinderen heftiger op stress reageren dan veilig gehechte kinderen. Wanneer er sprake was van depressie in het leven van de moeder, leidt dit tot een verdere toename van stress bij de onveilig gehechte kinderen. Hetzelfde gold voor onveilig gehechte kinderen met een risico-gen dat verantwoordelijk is voor een minder goede stressregulatie. Verder vonden we dat sensitief opvoedgedrag van moeder leidde tot meer veilige gehechtheid, maar alleen wanneer het kind een bepaalde variant van een gen droeg dat van belang is bij het omgaan met stress. De resultaten laten de kwetsbaarheid en stressgevoeligheid van onveilig gehechte kinderen zien. Daarnaast kunnen we op basis van de huidige resultaten zeggen dat insensitief opvoedgedrag, depressie van moeder en genetische risico’s een rol spelen bij onveilige gehechtheid. De ontwikkeling van gehechtheid is complex, en het resultaat van het samenspel tussen biologische aspecten en de opvoedingsomgeving. Daarop moet toekomstig onderzoek dan ook gericht zijn. Show less
In dit proefschrift staat ouderschap in de vroege kindertijd centraal, onder andere de reacties van volwassenen op het huilen van baby’s. Voor baby’s is huilen één van de belangrijkste manieren om... Show moreIn dit proefschrift staat ouderschap in de vroege kindertijd centraal, onder andere de reacties van volwassenen op het huilen van baby’s. Voor baby’s is huilen één van de belangrijkste manieren om te communiceren. Zo laten ze weten dat ze ergens behoefte aan hebben of zich niet lekker voelen. Maar niet alle ouders reageren op een sensitieve, liefdevolle manier: voor sommige ouders is het huilen van hun kind zo stressvol dat ze eerder op een hardhandige wijze reageren. In deze studie is onderzocht hoe volwassenen reageren op het huilen van een baby. Daarbij werd een standaard huilfragment van een pasgeboren kind gemanipuleerd en op verschillende hoogten afgespeeld. De toonhoogte van het huilgeluid en de manier waarop volwassenen het huilen interpreteren, bleken belangrijk te zijn. Hoge huilgeluiden vormen een risicofactor voor het stevig willen aanpakken van het kind. Zieke en premature kinderen hebben vaker zulke hoge huiltonen. Ook is onderzocht of verschillen in reactie op huilen erfelijk zijn. Dat is inderdaad het geval, maar niet voor alle aspecten van reageren op huilen. Verschillen in sensitieve reacties waren erfelijk bepaald, maar de neiging om het kind op een hardhandige manier aan te pakken niet. Show less
Er is nog relatief weinig bekend over de opvoeding en de ontwikkeling van gedragsproblemen bij jonge kinderen in tweede-generatie Turkse gezinnen in Nederland. In deze studie werden ruim 150 tweede... Show moreEr is nog relatief weinig bekend over de opvoeding en de ontwikkeling van gedragsproblemen bij jonge kinderen in tweede-generatie Turkse gezinnen in Nederland. In deze studie werden ruim 150 tweede-generatie Turkse moeders met jonge kinderen thuis bezocht en werden zij gefilmd tijdens verschillende spelletjes en taakjes om het opvoedgedrag van moeders te observeren. Ook hebben ouders verschillende vragenlijsten ingevuld. Dezelfde informatie was beschikbaar voor een groep Nederlandse gezinnen met peuters. Tweede-generatie Nederlands-Turkse moeders bleken meer stress te hebben en minder steun van de partner te ervaren, minder sensitief te zijn ten opzichte van hun kinderen en minder vaak op een positieve manier grenzen te stellen dan Nederlandse moeders. Turkse peuters laten echter niet meer probleemgedrag zien dan Nederlandse peuters in gezinnen met een vergelijkbaar opleidingsniveau en evenveel kinder en. Ondanks groepsverschillen is de onderlinge samenhang tussen de opvoedingsgedragingen van moeders en de ontwikkeling van probleemgedrag bij peuters vergelijkbaar in beide groepen. Ten slotte is gebleken dat het behoud van de Turkse cultuur een positieve invloed heeft op het welbevinden van Turkse moeders. Op basis van deze resultaten wordt onder Nederlands-Turkse gezinnen de effectiviteit van een cultuur-gevoelige opvoedingsondersteuning onderzocht die gericht is op het bevorderen van ouderlijke sensitiviteit en positief grenzen stellen. Show less
The objective of the research described in this thesis was to study single and cumulative family risk in relation to early childhood externalizing problems and the effectiveness of a parenting... Show moreThe objective of the research described in this thesis was to study single and cumulative family risk in relation to early childhood externalizing problems and the effectiveness of a parenting intervention program. The Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) aimed at reducing externalizing problems in 1- to 3-year-old children by enhancing parental sensitivity and adequate discipline strategies. An evaluation of the process of this intervention was also conducted. The study consisted of a screening phase in a general population sample (N = 2408) and a randomized case-control intervention phase in a selected sub-sample of children with high levels of externalizing behaviors (n = 237). The results of this thesis showed that even at an early age, family risk predicted child externalizing behaviors. Cumulative risk longitudinally predicted externalizing behaviors, but was not related to the effectiveness of the intervention. Further, first-time parents (primiparas) profited differently from the intervention than parents with more than one child (multiparas). Finally, a positive alliance between mother and intervener predicted change in positive parenting strategies. Show less
In this thesis the development, stability, and correlates of early childhood aggression were investigated. The normative development was examined in a general population sample using questionnaires... Show moreIn this thesis the development, stability, and correlates of early childhood aggression were investigated. The normative development was examined in a general population sample using questionnaires completed by the parents of 12-, 24-, and 36-month-old children and again one year later. Results showed an early childhood aggression curve, with increasing rates of aggression in the second year of life and decreasing rates in the fourth year. One-year stabilities were moderate for 12-month-olds and high for 24- and 36-month-olds. In a subsample of mother-child dyads child physical aggression and parenting were observed from videotapes recorded when the children were 1-3 years old and again one year later. Results indicated that negative discipline was positively related to child aggression one year later, but only when mothers were low in initial sensitivity. Finally, a meta-analysis of the literature showed that basal cortisol levels are positively related to aggression in preschoolers, but that this relation is reversed in school-aged children. The association is stronger in children with clinical levels of problem behavior. This study sheds light on the normative course of early childhood aggression and its physiological and parental correlates. Show less
