Fluency in terms of speed of speech and (lack of) hesitations such assilent and filled pauses (‘uhm’s) is part of oral proficiency. Languageassessment rubrics therefore include aspects of fluency.... Show moreFluency in terms of speed of speech and (lack of) hesitations such assilent and filled pauses (‘uhm’s) is part of oral proficiency. Languageassessment rubrics therefore include aspects of fluency. Measuringfluency, however, is highly time-consuming because of the manuallabour involved. The current paper aims to automatically measureaspects of L2 fluency, including filled pauses, in both Dutch andEnglish. A revised existing script and a new script for filled pausesare tested on accuracy. We also gauged whether the outcomes ofthe new script could be used for language assessment purposes byrelating the outcomes to human judgements. Without furtherinvestigations, the current script should not (yet) be used for thepurpose of assessing fluency automatically in (high-stakes) oralproficiency assessment. However, the performance of the scriptsfor measuring aspects of fluency globally and quickly are promising,especially given their stability in accuracy on new corpora. Show less
Fluency in terms of speed of speech and (lack of) hesitations such as silent and filled pauses (‘uhm’s) is part of oral proficiency. Language assessment rubrics therefore include aspects of fluency... Show moreFluency in terms of speed of speech and (lack of) hesitations such as silent and filled pauses (‘uhm’s) is part of oral proficiency. Language assessment rubrics therefore include aspects of fluency. Measuring fluency, however, is highly time-consuming because of the manual labour involved. The current paper aims to automatically measure aspects of L2 fluency, including filled pauses, in both Dutch and English. A revised existing script and a new script for filled pauses are tested on accuracy. We also gauged whether the outcomes of the new script could be used for language assessment purposes by relating the outcomes to human judgements. Without further investigations, the current script should not (yet) be used for the purpose of assessing fluency automatically in (high-stakes) oral proficiency assessment. However, the performance of the scripts for measuring aspects of fluency globally and quickly are promising, especially given their stability in accuracy on new corpora. Show less
The ability to learn a foreign language, language aptitude, is known to differ between individuals. To better understand second-language learning, language aptitude tests, tapping into the... Show moreThe ability to learn a foreign language, language aptitude, is known to differ between individuals. To better understand second-language learning, language aptitude tests, tapping into the different components of second-language learning aptitude, are widely used. For valid conclusions on comparisons of learners with different language backgrounds, it is crucial that such tests be language neutral. Several studies have investigated the language neutrality of the freely available LLAMA tests (Granena, 2013; Rogers et al., 2016, 2017). So far, comparing a number of L1 backgrounds, including those using different writing systems such as Arabic and Mandarin, no significant differences between participants have been found. However, until now, neither participants with agglutinative language backgrounds nor with first-language backgrounds that use multiple writing systems have been included. Therefore, this study selected participants from three different first-language backgrounds: Dutch (non-agglutinative, phonogram/Latin alphabet), Hungarian (agglutinative, phonogram/Latin alphabet), and Japanese (agglutinative, phonogram/syllabic alphabet and logogram/Japanese kanji). The participants performed three subsets of the LLAMA test. Significant differences between the groups were found on two of these tests: The ability to implicitly recognize sounds (LLAMA_D subtest) and inductive grammar learning ability (LLAMA_F), but no differences were found on vocabulary learning ability (LLAMA_B). Additionally, for LLAMA_B, the number of languages learnt was a significant covariate, confirming earlier findings that some subtests seem to be linked to language learning experience. We discuss the implications of our findings on the validity of the LLAMA_D and LLAMA_F subtests. Show less
Gonzalez Gonzalez, P.; Diaubalick, T.; Jong, N.H. de 2020
This study investigates the pitch properties of infant-directed speech (IDS) specific to word-learning contexts in which mothers introduce unfamiliar words to children. Using a semi-spontaneous... Show moreThis study investigates the pitch properties of infant-directed speech (IDS) specific to word-learning contexts in which mothers introduce unfamiliar words to children. Using a semi-spontaneous story-book telling task, we examined (1) whether mothers made distinctions between unfamiliar and familiar words with pitch in IDS compared to adult-directed speech (ADS); (2) whether pitch properties change when mothers address children from 18 to 24 months; and (3) how Mandarin Chinese and Dutch IDS differ in their pitch properties in word-learning contexts. Results show that the mean pitch of Mandarin Chinese IDS was already ADS-like when children were 24 months, but Dutch IDS remained exaggerated in pitch at the same age. Crucially, Mandarin Chinese mothers used a higher pitch and a larger pitch range in IDS when introducing unfamiliar words, while Dutch mothers used a higher pitch specifically for familiar words. These findings contribute to the language-specificity of prosodic input in early lexical development. Show less
A teaching method will only be implemented in the classroom if it is not only of benefit to students but is also practicable for teachers. In this contribution we propose an adaptive teaching... Show moreA teaching method will only be implemented in the classroom if it is not only of benefit to students but is also practicable for teachers. In this contribution we propose an adaptive teaching method for speaking skills in foreign languages. To make it practicable, we used the Bridging Model which assumes that regular teaching and the new method are shaped around the same lesson segments. By recombination of these segments teachers can adapt the new method to their teaching context. Based on questionnaires and visual representations of lessons, we examined how and with which considerations 13 teachers enacted the method in practice. Furthermore, the practicability was examined using impact analysis. Results show that the teachers succeeded in applying the method in practice and found the adaptive method to be significantly more desirable than their regular teaching. The flexibility of the method could be an ingredient for curriculum reforms in general. Show less
Little is known about the effects of different instructional approaches on learner affect in oral interaction in the foreign language classroom. In a randomized experiment with Dutch pre‐vocational... Show moreLittle is known about the effects of different instructional approaches on learner affect in oral interaction in the foreign language classroom. In a randomized experiment with Dutch pre‐vocational learners (N = 147), we evaluated the effects of 3 newly developed instructional programs for English as a foreign language (EFL). These programs differed in instructional focus (form‐focused vs. interaction strategies‐oriented) and type of task (pre‐scripted language tasks vs. information gap tasks). Multilevel analyses revealed that learners’ enjoyment of EFL oral interaction was not affected by instruction, that willingness to communicate (WTC) decreased over time, and that self‐confidence was positively affected by combining information gap tasks with interactional strategies instruction. In addition, regression analyses revealed that development in learners’ WTC and enjoyment did not have predictive value for achievement in EFL oral interaction, but that development in self‐confidence did explain achievement in EFL oral interaction in trained interactional contexts. Show less
When speaking in any language, speakers must conceptualize what they want to say before they can formulate and articulate their message. We present two experiments employing a novel experimental... Show moreWhen speaking in any language, speakers must conceptualize what they want to say before they can formulate and articulate their message. We present two experiments employing a novel experimental paradigm in which the formulating and articulating stages of speech production were kept identical across conditions of differing conceptualizing difficulty. We tracked the effect of difficulty in conceptualizing during the generation of speech (Experiment 1) and during the abandonment and regeneration of speech (Experiment 2) on speaking fluency by Dutch native speakers in their first (L1) and second (L2) language (English). The results showed that abandoning and especially regenerating a speech plan taxes the speaker, leading to disfluencies. For most fluency measures, the increases in disfluency were similar across L1 and L2. However, a significant interaction revealed that abandoning and regenerating a speech plan increases the time needed to solve conceptual difficulties while speaking in the L2 to a greater degree than in the L1. This finding supports theories in which cognitive resources for conceptualizing are shared with those used for later stages of speech planning. Furthermore, a practical implication for language assessment is that increasing the conceptual difficulty of speaking tasks should be considered with caution. Show less
Speaking fluently requires three main processes to run smoothly: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation. This study investigates to what extent fluency in spontaneous speech in both first... Show moreSpeaking fluently requires three main processes to run smoothly: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation. This study investigates to what extent fluency in spontaneous speech in both first (L1) and second (L2) languages can be explained by individual differences in articulatory skills. A group of L2 English learners (n = 51) performed three semispontaneous speaking tasks in their L1 Spanish and in their L2 English. In addition, participants performed articulatory skill tasks that measured the speed at which their articulatory speech plans could be initiated (delayed picture naming) and the rate and accuracy at which their articulatory gestures could be executed (diadochokinetic production). The results showed that fluency in spontaneous L2 speech can be predicted by L1 fluency, replicating earlier studies and showing that L2 fluency measures are, to a large degree, measures of personal speaking style. Articulatory skills were found to contribute modestly to explaining variance in both L1 and L2 fluency. Show less
This article considers the construct of fluency in second language assessment and how it might be informed by research in applied linguistics. It briefly describes the way fluency is conceptualized... Show moreThis article considers the construct of fluency in second language assessment and how it might be informed by research in applied linguistics. It briefly describes the way fluency is conceptualized in four language tests, as embodied in their respective assessment criteria, to show where the field is at present. The article then takes into account recent insights from applied linguistics, and from the fields of psycholinguistics, discourse analysis, and sociolinguistics. The article questions the current conceptualization of fluency in language testing, in which it is defined as a concept that should be sought in the ear of the beholder, and where disfluency is only seen as a deficit. Future research should focus on finding ways to ensure that the measures used in testing reflect the ability to talk fluently and efficiently, rather than measures that only reflect listeners’ impressions about such ability, and to show that these can be marked appropriately and reliably. Show less
By force of nature, every bit of spoken language is produced at a particular speed. However, this speed is not constant-speakers regularly speed up and slow down. Variation in speech rate is... Show moreBy force of nature, every bit of spoken language is produced at a particular speed. However, this speed is not constant-speakers regularly speed up and slow down. Variation in speech rate is influenced by a complex combination of factors, including the frequency and predictability of words, their information status, and their position within an utterance. Here, we use speech rate as an index of word-planning effort and focus on the time window during which speakers prepare the production of words from the two major lexical classes, nouns and verbs. We show that, when naturalistic speech is sampled from languages all over the world, there is a robust cross-linguistic tendency for slower speech before nouns compared with verbs, both in terms of slower articulation and more pauses. We attribute this slowdown effect to the increased amount of planning that nouns require compared with verbs. Unlike verbs, nouns can typically only be used when they represent new or unexpected information; otherwise, they have to be replaced by pronouns or be omitted. These conditions on noun use appear to outweigh potential advantages stemming from differences in internal complexity between nouns and verbs. Our findings suggest that, beneath the staggering diversity of grammatical structures and cultural settings, there are robust universals of language processing that are intimately tied to how speakers manage referential information when they communicate with one another. Show less
Many researchers use Cronbach's alpha to demonstrate internal consistency, even though it has been shown numerous times that Cronbach's alpha is not suitable for this. Because the intention of... Show moreMany researchers use Cronbach's alpha to demonstrate internal consistency, even though it has been shown numerous times that Cronbach's alpha is not suitable for this. Because the intention of questionnaire and test constructers is to summarize the test by its overall sum score, we advocate summability, which we define as the proportion of total test variation that is explained by the sum score. This measure is closely related to Loevinger's H. The mathematical derivation of summability as a measure of explained variation is given for both scale and dichotomously scored items. Using computer simulations, we show that summability performs adequately and we apply it to an existing productive vocabulary test. An open-source tool to easily calculate summability is provided online (https://sites.google.com/view/summability). Show less
Tonal information is essential to early word learning in tone languages. Although numerous studies have investigated the intonational and segmental properties of infant-directed speech (IDS), only... Show moreTonal information is essential to early word learning in tone languages. Although numerous studies have investigated the intonational and segmental properties of infant-directed speech (IDS), only a few studies have explored the properties of lexical tones in IDS. These studies mostly focused on the first year of life; thus little is known about how lexical tones in IDS change as children’s vocabulary acquisition accelerates in the second year (Bloom 2001; Goldfield and Reznick 1990). The present study examines whether Mandarin Chinese mothers hyperarticulate lexical tones in IDS addressing 18-month-old and 24-month-old children—at which age children are learning words at a rapid speed—versus adult-directed speech (ADS). Thirty-nine Mandarin Chinese–speaking mothers were tested in a semi-spontaneous picture-book-reading task, in which they told the same story to their child (IDS condition) and to an adult (ADS condition). Results for the F0 measurements (minimum F0, maximum F0, and F0 range) of tone in the speech data revealed a continuum of differences among IDS addressing 18-month-olds, IDS addressing 24-month-olds, and ADS. Lexical tones in IDS addressing 18-month-old children had a higher minimum F0, higher maximum F0, and larger pitch range than lexical tones in ADS. Lexical tones in IDS addressing 24-month-old children showed more similarity to ADS tones with respect to pitch height: there were no differences in minimum F0 and maximum F0 between ADS and IDS. However, F0 range was still larger. These results suggest that lexical tones are generally hyperarticulated in Mandarin Chinese IDS addressing 18- and 24- month-old children despite the change in pitch level over time. Mandarin Chinese mothers may hyperarticulate lexical tones in IDS when talking to toddlers and potentially facilitate tone acquisition and word learning. Show less
This article explores ways to assess interactional performance, and reports on the use of a test format that standardizes the interlocutor’s linguistic and interactional contributions to the... Show moreThis article explores ways to assess interactional performance, and reports on the use of a test format that standardizes the interlocutor’s linguistic and interactional contributions to the exchange. It describes the construction and administration of six scripted speech tasks (instruction, advice, and sales tasks) with pre-vocational learners (n = 34), and reports on the extent to which these tasks can be used to assess L2 speakers’ interactional performance in a reliable and valid manner.The high levels of agreement found between three independent raters on both holistic and analytical measurements of interactional performance indicate that this construct can be measured reliably with these tasks. Means and standard deviations demonstrate that tasks differentiate between speakers’ interactional performance. Holistic ratings of linguistic accuracy and interactional ability correlate highly between tasks that focus on different language functions, and are situated in different interactional domains. Furthermore, positive correlations are found between both holistic and analytic ratings of oral performance and vocabulary size. Positive within-task correlations between analytical ratings of specific interactional strategies and holistic ratings of overall interactional ability show that analytic ratings of meaning negotiation and correcting misinterpretation provide additional information about speakers’ interactional ability that is not captured by holistic assessment alone.It is concluded that these tasks are a useful diagnostic tool for practitioners to support their learners’ interactional abilities at a sub-skill level. Show less
