This paper presents the results of elemental and lead isotopic analysis of copper alloys, copper-based pigments and an extremely rare tin-based alloy from the town of Amara West (Sudan), the centre... Show moreThis paper presents the results of elemental and lead isotopic analysis of copper alloys, copper-based pigments and an extremely rare tin-based alloy from the town of Amara West (Sudan), the centre for pharaonic control of occupied Upper Nubia between 1300 and 1070 BCE. It is the first assemblage of its kind to be analysed for Upper Nubia during this period. This research examines the selection and consumption of alloys in a colonial context, in light of earlier and contemporaneous practices and patterns in both Egypt and Nubia, to assess broader systems of resource management and metal production. Drawing on the complementary information obtained from pigment analysis, novel insights into interactions between different high-temperature crafts are obtained, particularly in terms of shared provisioning systems. From this unique perspective, pigment analysis is used for the first time to illuminate copper sources not reflected in metal assemblages, while scrap copper alloys are identified as a key colourant for Egyptian blue manufacture. The integrated application of strontium isotope analysis further highlights the potential for identifying links between glass, faience and Egyptian blue production systems within Egypt and for distinguishing these from other manufacturing regions such as Mesopotamia. The analysis of a tin artefact further expands our understanding of potential tin sources available during the New Kingdom and their role in shaping copper alloy compositions. Overall, this holistic approach to copper alloys and their application in other high-temperature industries ties together different strands of research, shaping a new understanding of New Kingdom technological practices, supply networks and material stocks circulating throughout the Nile Valley. Show less
Antimony (Sb) is considered a rare material in the archaeological record, found only in unusual circumstances. Nevertheless, antimony minerals were an important resource for several millennia, used... Show moreAntimony (Sb) is considered a rare material in the archaeological record, found only in unusual circumstances. Nevertheless, antimony minerals were an important resource for several millennia, used in metallurgy and to opacify or decolour glass and glazes. In this way, Sb spread throughout the known world from the Chalcolithic onward. In glassmaking, stibnite was the only available resource that could provide in any measure the very pure Sb evident from trace element analyses of the earliest glass. Sb isotopic analysis has allowed Late Bronze Age Egyptian and Mesopotamian glass vessels and Caucasian Sb metallic beads to be compared to the possible ancient ore sources. The only known matches for the isotopic composition of the glass are stibnite ores from the Racha-Lechkumi district in the Caucasus (present-day Georgia), near the Zopkhito Au-Sb deposits, mined from the 17th century BCE. Conversely, the Sb metal beads represent several isotopic and trace element compositional groups, only one of which matches the Racha-Lechkumi stibnite. Sb extraction for glassmaking was likely unrelated to copper metallurgy, and may have been associated with the mining of precious metals. Show less
Acker, T. van; Buckle, T.; Malderen, S.J.M. van; Willigen, D.M. van; Unen, V. van; Leeuwen, F.W.B. van; Vanhaecke, F. 2019
In order to improve the understanding of glass production and provenance, we present trace element and Sr, Nd and B isotope ratio data for 15 samples of raw natron glass from a single tank furnace... Show moreIn order to improve the understanding of glass production and provenance, we present trace element and Sr, Nd and B isotope ratio data for 15 samples of raw natron glass from a single tank furnace in Apollonia (6th-7th century CE) and eight glass samples from two tank furnaces in Bet Eli'ezer (8th century CE) in Israel. This data provides information about the geochemical homogeneity within a single batch of raw glass and about the differences and/or similarities between different tank furnaces on a single site. Four glasses from a secondary workshop at Tell el-Ashmunein, Egypt (8th-9th century CE) are analysed for comparative purposes.All raw glass samples have uniform trace element patterns and ratios. Because of poor mixing of the glass batch before and during firing, absolute concentrations however can vary significantly within a single tank furnace. The concentrations of trace elements commonly associated with (de)colouring are very low and can be attributed to background concentrations in the sand raw materials. This indicates that there was no obvious recycling of glass culler at this stage of the production process and that the tank furnace glass is primary glass in the true sense of the word. The isotopic compositions of Sr, Nd and B in the tank furnace glasses are relatively homogeneous. This confirms their potential as provenance indicators. The isotopic composition of Sr in tank furnace glass from Apollonia and Bet Eli'ezer indicates that the lime was derived from seashell, suggesting the glass was produced from beach sand. Glass from Tell el-Ashmunein contains Sr with lower Sr-87/Sr-86 ratios, pointing to the use of limestone as the source of lime. All primary glasses from Israel analysed have Nd isotopic compositions typical for an Eastern Mediterranean origin. delta B-11 indicates that natron used in the tank furnaces in Apollonia and Bet Eli'ezer was most likely imported from Egypt Show less
Buckle, T.; Wal, S. van der; Malderen, S.J.M. van; Muller, L.; Kuil, J.; Unen, V. van; ... ; Leeuwen, F.W.B. van 2017
