Technological Analysis of Middle Palaeolithic (surface-)collections

(adapted from a syllabus designed for the description of the Middle Palaeolithic scatters at Maastricht-Belvédère by D. de Loecker (1992), based on work by N. Schlanger, who derived it from N. Goren-Inbar and other Israeli archaeologists)

CONTENT

Introduction

1. Field data

2. Flake analysis

3. Natural and postdepositional surface modifications

4. Core analysis

5. Additional remarks

Leiden, december 2001
INTRODUCTION

In the course of the year 2000, a project was initiated to study the Middle Palaeolithic of Southern Limburg with a particular emphasis on the information content of lithic surface scatters. These ‘low priority’, badly preserved sites are at present our only source of information on the Middle Palaeolithic of the higher landscape parts such as terraces and plateau areas. An initial study of surface scatters by Kolen e.a. (1999) provided the impetus for this project. The project started with small-scale fieldwork at the site of Colmont-Ponderosa.
A detailed technological analysis of the surface collections is suggested as one of the more promising ways to study this difficult site category. The list of variables presented here is designed to describe both excavated and surface collections of Middle Palaeolithic artefacts and to enable the comparison of such collections taking into account such aspects as the degree of fragmentation and natural surface modification.
Every artefacts is described in terms of four general fields of interest: 1. the field data, with trench, level, square, x- and y-coordinates. 2. the morphology of the artefact, divided in two groups: flake analysis and core analysis. 3. the natural and postdepositional surface modifications such as patination and frostcracking.
What follows is a description of the code list. The basic characteristics of stone artefacts, such as the location of the platform, the dorsal and ventral side and the bulb, are supposed to be well-known.

For some general information, see also:
J. Beuker, 1983: Vakmanschap in vuursteen.
F. Bordes, 1988: Typologie du paléolithique ancien et moyen (first edition in 1961).
A.Debenath & H.L. Dibble, 1994: Handbook of paleolithic typology (volume 1: Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Europe).

On Middle Palaeolithic surface scatters in Southern Limburg:
J. Kolen, D. DeLoecker, A.J. Groenendijk, J.P. de Warrimont, 1999: Middle Palaeolithic surface scatters: how informative? A case study from southern Limburg (the Netherlands), in: W. Roebroeks & C. Gamble (eds), The Middle Palaeolithic occupation of Europe, p.177-191.

 CODE-LIST

1. FIELD DATA
The first group of variables concerns the field data associated with every object.

Variable:  ARTEFACT NUMBER
Unique identification number consisting of a code for the collection/site + individual number, e.g. E/106.

Variable: TRENCH
In the case of Colmont-Ponderosa, the trenches are coded by letters B to E. In the case of a surface collection, this field can be used to distinguish between parts or collectors.

Variable: LEVEL/LAYER
All artefacts were ascribed or collected in 10cm-layers in Colmont-Ponderosa. This field contains the layer number. The surface was layer 1, from >0-10 cm layer 2, from >120-130 cm layer 14 etc. If  measured depth below the surface is given, refer to the associated layer, e.g. depth 143 cm is layer 16 (i.e. >140-150 cm)

Variable: SQUARE
In Colmont-Ponderosa, the trenches were divided in square meter blocks with a number. This field and the next two are usually empty for surface collections

Variable: X-COORDINATE
X-coordinate of the square.

Variable: Y-COORDINATE
Y-coordinate of the square.

The next variable gives a quick overview of the composition of the collection.

Variable:  CATEGORY

Categories: (1) flake, (2) blade, (3) chip, (4) core, (5) core trimming element, (6) tool trimming element, (7) modified artefact (“tool”), (8) pseudo-artefact, (99) indeterminate (chunk, angular fragment)

Comments:
A blade refers to an artefact with a length at least twice its width ánd (sub-)parallel edges.
Chips are all artefacts smaller than 20 mm (maximum dimension). Only the maximum dimension of the chips will be measured. Chips that can be identified as tool trimming elements should be described as such.
Cores, the raw material units from which flakes etc. have been detached, are described separately.
Core trimming elements are products of the re-shaping, re-juvenation or re-orientation of a core.
Tool trimming elements are products from the production, resharpening or modification of an artefact or “tool”. Examples are ‘long sharpening flakes’, ‘transverse sharpening flakes’, tranchet-flakes and biface-production flakes.
Modified artefact or “tool” refers to any secondarily modified artefact, i.e. with signs of retouch. Its definition is strictly morphological (no reference to function). The next variable TOOLTYPE describes the tool according to the Bordes type-list. The presence of “use retouch” (irregular edge damage) is not meant here, but described by a separate variable. 
A pseudo-artefact is an object of which one is not totally certain that it is man-made/modified.

All flakes, blades, tool- and core-trimming elements and modified artefacts are described by the variables for the flake analysis.
Cores are described by the variables for the core analysis.
Chips are only measured for their maximal dimension.
All objects (except chips, but including pseudo-artefacts and indeterminate chunks) are described in terms of natural and post-depositional surface modifications.

Variable: TOOL TYPE
Typological description for Middle Paleolithic tools according to the Bordes type-list. Other, later tools can be described verbally, e.g. endscraper, burin, fragment of polished axe.

2. FLAKE ANALYSIS
For flakes, blades, core- and tool-trimming elements and tools.

Variable: COMPLETENESS
It indicates the preservation or degree of fragmentation of the collection.

Categories: (1) complete, (2) proximal, (3) distal, (4) medial, (5) lateral, (99) indeterminate

Variable: BREAK
This variable is used to distinguish between old breaks and (possibly) recent breaks, in combination with the variables 22 and 23 on the patination of the artefact.

Categories: (0) niet van toepassing (for complete artefacts), (1) not patinated, (2) patinated

The following three variables give information on the metric dimensions of the artefacts.

Variable: LENGTH
Maximal length, measured in millimeters (mm), along the axis of the artefact, i.e. along the imaginary line from the point of impact.

Variable: WIDTH
Maximal width, measured in millimeters (mm), perpendicular to the axis of the artefact.

Variable: THICKNESS
Maximal thickness of the artefact, including the bulb of percussion, measured in mm.

The next two variables are particularly relevant for insight in postdepositional processes, such as size-sorting.

Variable: MAXIMAL DIMENSION
Maximal dimension between the two extremes of the artefacts, regardless of the axis, measured in mm. Also measured for chips (< 20 mm).

Variable: WEIGHT
Measured with 1 gram accuracy.

The next group of variables are describing the character of the proximal part. They are indicative of the amount of effort and preparation put in the production process.

Variable: TYPE OF STRIKING PLATFORM
The type of striking platform is indicative of the degree of preparation in lithic production (together with the dorsal preparation)

Categories: (0) missing, (1) cortical, (2) diaclase, (3) plain (one scar), (4) prepared (facetted and/or retouched), (5) dihedral, (6) polyhedral, (7) punctiform, (99) indeterminate

Comments:
A missing platform correlates with the categories (distal) and (medial) in the variable completeness (sometimes also (lateral), usually also (indeterminate))
A cortical striking platform is any platform with some cortex preserved (idem for diaclase). A platform with both cortex ánd a diaclase is dihedral.
Indeterminate is used for partially preserved platforms and shattered ones.
A remark must be made when there is evidence for the deliberate removal of the platform by a blow (resulting in a bulb of percussion or its negative) as well as a socalled “chapeau de gendarme”.

Variable: DORSAL PREPARATION
Dorsal preparation of the platform edge can consist of abrasion and/or retouching. It indicates the degree of preparation put into the production of flakes.

Categories: (0) absent, (1) present

Variable: MAXIMAL WIDTH OF PLATFORM
Measured in millimeters. Use (0) if no measurement is possible

Variable: MAXIMAL THICKNESS OF PLATFORM
Measured in millimeters. Use (0) if no measurement is possible

Variable: ANGLE OF PERCUSSION
The angle is measured between the striking platform and the ventral side of the artefact, avoiding the bulb of percussion. It is measured in 5º accuracy. Use (0) in case of missing platform or impossible measurement.

Variable: TYPE OF PERCUSSION

Categories: (0) missing, (1) hard hammer, (2) soft hammer, (99) indeterminate.

Comments:
As indicating hard hammer percussion, we take a pronounced bulb of percussion, clear ripples (“slaggolven”) and a point of impact on the platform.
As indicating soft hammer percussion, we take a lip at the platform, a flat bulb of percussion and less pronounced ripples.
The hard or soft hammer type should only be indicated when one is fairly certain. In most cases therefore, it is probably not so clear.

Variable: DORSAL PATTERN
This variable refers to the negatives of removals previous to the flake and may tell something about the complexity of core preparation: it is ‘a fossil record of series of antecedent actions’. Because the dorsal pattern can be the result of many previous actions, it can take many forms and potentially has a high variability. It is the dominant, most important and striking pattern that should be described. If too many scars are ambiguous (i.e. the direction cannot be determined), then it should be described as indeterminate.

Categories: (0) missing (e.g. due to frost cracking), (1) outer surface, (2) diaclase, (3) plain, (4) simple, (5) convergent, (6) radial, (7) ridge, (8) side, (9) opposed, (10) simple + opposed, (11) simple + side, (12) side + opposed, (99) indeterminate

Variable: NUMBER OF DORSAL SCARS
Only scars larger than 10 mm, and excluding retouching and notches.

Variable: TYPE OF DISTAL END
Categories: (0) missing, (1) feather, (2) hinge, (3) step, (4) plunge/outrepassé

Raw material characteristics form the purpose of the next group of variables.

Variable: AMOUNT OF OUTER SURFACE
The degree to which the flake preserves traces of the original outer surface of the raw material nodule (cortex, rolled/abraded surface or outer diaclase). A high proportion of flakes with a lot of outer surface preserved indicates either the initial stages of raw material exploitation or the use of small raw material nodules.

Categories: (0) no outer surface preserved, (1) < 25 %, (2) 25-50 %, (3) 50-75 %, (4) 75-100 %

Variable: KIND OF OUTER SURFACE
The kind of outer surface suggest a possible source area of the raw material: either relatively close to its limestone origin (slope deposits) or derived from secondary gravel deposits of the Meuse or its tributaries.

Categories: (0) no outer surface present, niet van toepassing, (1) more or less fresh, chalky cortex, (2) rough cortex with cavities, (3) rolled, fluvial cortex

Variable: DIACLASE
A diaclase is an internal breakage plain in the raw material. It is suggestive of the relative quality of the raw materials used.

Categories: (0) absent, (1) present

Variable: RAW MATERIAL REMARKS
Identification of raw materials is rather complicated macroscopically.
In Southern Limburg several types are distinguished:
-	Rijckholt (or better Lixhe-Lanaye flint): light to dark grey (sometimes black or blueish), with black and white/greywhite spots (smaller than 1 mm up to more than 1 cm), fine-grained but not glassy
-	Rullen: known in two varieties (1) light to dark grey variety, identical to Rijckholt, and (2) a honey-coloured variety, due to Tertiary soil formation
-	Banholt and Rodebos: subvarieties of Rijckholt resp. Rullen, but often with a reddish-brown band underneath the cortex (usually more than 5 mm thick)
-	Light-grey Belgian: a light-grey, glassy flint
-	Simpelveld: a fine-grained, banded flint
-	Vetschau/Orsbach: a black, fine-grained to glassy flint, often white to yellow spots of chalk (about 1 to 10 mm), irregular yellowish cortex with a lot of cavities
-	Valkenburg: coarse-grained flint
-	Lousberg: ?
Other flint- and chert-types are also found in archaeological contexts e.g. Romigny-Lhéry-flint from Northern France and Grand-Pressigny-flint from Western France.
In general three types can be distinguished on the basis of grain size:
-	glassy flints: light-grey Belgian, Obourg & Baltic flints
-	fine-grained flints: flints from the Lixhe-Lanaye, Kunrade and Zeven Wegen members of limestone
-	coarse-grained flints: Valkenburg-type
It must be remembered that the flints of such names as Rijckholt not only occur at the type-site, but in the whole area in which the geological member is distributed as well as the eluvial sediments (i.e. the dissolution residue of the limestone) as well as the Meuse gravels.
Literature:
P.J.Felder, P.C.M. Rademakers, M.E.Th. de Grooth (eds) 1998 Excavations of prehistoric flint mines at Rijckholt-St.Geertruid (Limburg, The Netherlands).
J.P. de Warrimont, A.J. Groenendijk 1993 100 jaar Rullenvuursteen: een kleurrijke vuursteensoort nader bekeken, Archeologie in Limburg 57, p. 37-46.
See also: Toelichting bij de geologische kaart van Heerlen 1: 50.000.

Categories: (1) Lixhe-Lanaye flint (Rijckholt & grey Rullen varieties), (2) Rullen flint (honey coloured variety), (3) (reddish-)brown band underneath the cortex (Banholt/Rodebos variety?), (4) Vetschau/Orsbach flint, (5) coarse-grained flint (Valkenburg type), (6) fine-grained flint, (7) glassy flint, (99) indeterminate

Use the remarks option for other flint types.

3. NATURAL AND POSTDEPOSITIONAL SURFACE MODIFICATIONS
The following variables are designed to provide insights in the natural surface modifications of all artefacts (except chips, but including pseudo-artefacts and indeterminate chunks)

Variable: BURNING

Categories: (0) absent, (1) present

Variable: DEGREE OF PATINATION
The degree of patination is most clear on a break where the thickness of the patina can be measured.

Categories: (0) absent, (1) light (< 1 mm), (2) heavy (> 1 mm)

Variable: KIND OF PATINATION

Categories: (0) absent, (1) dull white to grey-white patina, (2) porcelain white to blueish-white patina (3) ‘spaghetti’ patina, irregular striped pattern cf. roots, (4) coloured patina e.g. brown or orange, (5) gloss, sheen with ‘greasy’ appearance

Variable: FROSTCRACKS

Categories: (0) absent, (1) frostcracks present (lines), (2) surfaces resulting from frost cracking (parts of the dorsal or ventral side are missing due to frost cracks).

Variable: USE RETOUCH
Use retouch refers to small edge damage, similar to intentional retouch in type, but irregular in shape.

Categories: (0) absent, (1) present.

Variable: “CRYOTURBATION RETOUCH”
Edge damage that can strongly resemble artificial retouch.
Stapert (1976) mentions several distinctive characteristics:
‘in the case of natural “retouch”, small “teeth” often develop along the “retouched” sides’;
‘alternating retouch is often present’;
‘obtuse (overhanging) “retouch angles” occur regularly’.
Stapert (1976) notes that “cryoturbation retouch” is very common and that Palaeolithic implements can also be affected by it after their manufacture. He also refers to the ‘indice tayacien’ (relevant because the Colmont-collection also contains a Tayac-point): “It is possible that this index indicates above all cryoturbation: in fact the majority of the “retouches abruptes et alternes” seem to be caused by natural processes” (Bourgon 1957).

Categories: (0) absent, (1) present

Additional note can be made of the presence/absence of scratches and pressure cones, but these are usually only distinguishable by stereo microscope.

Variable: ROUNDING
This variable refers to the effects of transport. Heavy patination may also cause rounding of edges and ribs, but it is not the primary focus of this variable.

Categories: (0) absent, (1) light (edges only), (2) heavy (all-over)

Variable: DEGREE OF POSTDEPOSITIONAL EDGE DAMAGE
It refers to edge damage by e.g. ploughing. It is measured as a percentage of the total edge length (except the platform).

Categories: (0) absent, (1) < 50 %, (2) 50-100 %

AND

FINALLY

Variable: REMARKS
Use with restraint, but some significant aspect of the artefact can be noted, e.g. Levallois flake, “chapeau de gendarme”, subject to closer study by microscope, etc.

4. CORE ANALYSIS

Variable: MAXIMAL DIMENSION
Maximal dimension between the two extremes of the artefacts, regardless of the axis.

Variable: WEIGHT
Measured in 1 gram accuracy.

Variable: CORE TYPE
The core typology used here is the one designed by Hutcheson & Callow (1986) for the Middle Palaeolithic material from La Cotte de St. Brélade.

Categories: (1) Levallois, (2) disc, (3) discoidal, (4) prismatic, (5) high backed discoidal, (6) pyramidal/conical, (7) bipyramidal/biconical, (8) polyhedral, (9) multiple platformed, (10) shapeless or miscellaneous, (11) single platformed, unifacial, (12) single platformed, bifacial, (13) double platformed, opposed, (14) double platformed at right angles, (15) core fragment.

Variable: NUMBER OF SCARS
Only for scars larger than 10 mm on the core face, not including platform flakes.

Variable: MAXIMAL LENGTH OF SCAR
Maximal length of the largest complete negative on the core face

Variable: AMOUNT OF CORTEX
Categories: (0) no outer surface preserved, (1) < 25 %, (2) 25-50 %, (3) 50-75 %, (4) 75-100 %

Variable: KIND OF CORTEX
Categories: (0) no outer surface present, niet van toepassing, (1) more or less fresh, chalky cortex, (2) rough cortex with cavities, (3) rolled, fluvial cortex

Variable: DIACLASE
Categories: (0) absent, (1) present

Variable: RAW MATERIAL REMARKS
Identification of raw materials is rather complicated macroscopically.
In Southern Limburg several types are distinguished:
-	Rijckholt (or better Lixhe-Lanaye flint): light to dark grey (sometimes black or blueish), with black and white/greywhite spots (smaller than 1 mm up to more than 1 cm), fine-grained but not glassy
-	Rullen: known in two varieties (1) light to dark grey variety, identical to Rijckholt, and (2) a honey-coloured variety, due to Tertiary soil formation
-	Banholt and Rodebos: subvarieties of Rijckholt resp. Rullen, but often with a reddish-brown band underneath the cortex (usually more than 5 mm thick)
-	Light-grey Belgian: a light-grey, glassy flint
-	Simpelveld: a fine-grained, banded flint
-	Vetschau/Orsbach: a black, fine-grained to glassy flint, often white to yellow spots of chalk (about 1 to 10 mm), irregular yellowish cortex with a lot of cavities
-	Valkenburg: coarse-grained flint
-	Lousberg: ?
Other flint- and chert-types are also found in archaeological contexts e.g. Romigny-Lhéry-flint from Northern France and Grand-Pressigny-flint from Western France.
In general three types can be distinguished on the basis of grain size:
-	glassy flints: light-grey Belgian, Obourg & Baltic flints
-	fine-grained flints: flints from the Lixhe-Lanaye, Kunrade and Zeven Wegen members of limestone
-	coarse-grained flints: Valkenburg-type
It must be remembered that the flints of such names as Rijckholt not only occur at the type-site, but in the whole area in which the geological member is distributed as well as the eluvial sediments (i.e. the dissolution residue of the limestone) as well as the Meuse gravels.
Literature:
P.J.Felder, P.C.M. Rademakers, M.E.Th. de Grooth (eds) 1998 Excavations of prehistoric flint mines at Rijckholt-St.Geertruid (Limburg, The Netherlands).
J.P. de Warrimont, A.J. Groenendijk 1993 100 jaar Rullenvuursteen: een kleurrijke vuursteensoort nader bekeken, Archeologie in Limburg 57, p. 37-46.
See also: Toelichting bij de geologische kaart van Heerlen 1: 50.000.

Categories: (1) Lixhe-Lanaye flint (Rijckholt & grey Rullen varieties), (2) Rullen flint (honey coloured variety), (3) (reddish-)brown band underneath the cortex (Banholt/Rodebos variety?), (4) Vetschau/Orsbach flint, (5) coarse-grained flint (Valkenburg type), (6) fine-grained flint, (7) glassy flint, (99) indeterminate

Use the remarks option for other flint types.

5. ADDITIONAL REMARKS

Necessary equipment for the analysis:

•	Data sheets

•	Syllabus

•	Callipers for measuring distances

•	Geotriangle for measuring angles

•	Pencil and eraser

•	Magnifying glass

Select artefacts which are worth drawing and/or can function as a reference for coding.

Finally:

Keep the workspace, artefacts and data sheets in good order!

Take your time, but avoid unproductive discussion, don’t drown in unnecessary nuances and make choices for good reasons!

Try to read the artefact and always keep an open mind!

If you encounter mistakes, if you have suggestions for additions and/or changes, please contact Alexander Verpoorte. All suggestions for improvement are welcome.